Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Development of thermally efficient fibre-based eco-friendly brick

reusing locally available waste materials
Ashwin Narendra Raut a,⇑, Christy Pathrose Gomez b
a
Department of Construction Management, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
b
Department of Construction Management, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s

Focus is on development of thermally efficient wall material for hot and humid climate.

The bricks were developed utilizing locally available sustainable waste material.

Physical, mechanical and thermal performance of newly developed bricks is assessed.

Effect of oil palm fibres on physical and thermal properties is assessed.

Microstructural examination is performed to understand interaction between the raw materials.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Currently there are several kinds of building wall thermal insulation materials commercially available in
Received 11 August 2016 Malaysia, however the issue with all these materials is that they are not eco-friendly. This paper attempts
Received in revised form 12 December 2016 to reduce the dependence on non-eco-friendly insulation material by developing thermally efficient eco-
Accepted 15 December 2016
friendly bricks. The prototype brick developed by incorporating locally available sustainable waste mate-
Available online 24 December 2016
rial was subjected to initial investigation on physical, mechanical, thermal and microscopic studies. The
investigations revealed that the thermally efficient prototype mix design using glass powder and palm oil
Keywords:
fly ash along with lime as binder is able to provide strength to the bricks. Also, usage of oil palm fibres
Sustainable
Thermally efficient
were beneficial in lowering the thermal conductivity of bricks. At incorporation of 1% wt of OPF, compres-
Glass powder sive strength was found out to be 7.21 MPa and thermal conductivity was 0.39 W/mK, which indicates
Palm oil fly ash the proposed bricks can be an alternative to non-eco-friendly commercial common bricks. The advantage
Oil palm fibres of the proposed bricks is two-fold: having low thermal conductivity will make it an energy efficient
Bricks option, second is the usage of sustainable resources makes it an eco-friendly product.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction mental concerns, there is an urgent need to develop and utilize

materials that have eco-friendly features. A material having sus-
The building sector consumes a significant amount of energy tainable features along with optimum insulating properties can
during its operational stage contributing to an ever increasing eventually contribute to addressing key environmental concerns,
amount of greenhouse gas emissions. A key consideration in order such as leading to reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. In addi-
to improve the energy efficiency of the building sector is to provide tion, better insulation of the building envelope reduces mechanical
thermal insulation to the building envelope for the purpose of low- energy dependency for cooling and heating purposes, eventually
ering its heating/cooling load. There are several kinds of insulating contributing to the betterment of the environment.
materials commercially available in Malaysia such as Fibreglass– The amount of raw materials consumed by the construction
urethane, Fibreglass (rigid), Urethane (rigid), Perlite, Extruded industry is approximately 24% of the global raw material resource
Polystyrene and Urethane [1]. But the problem with all these mate- [2]. Thus, for achieving the goal of sustainable development in the
rials is that they are not eco-friendly materials. Due to the environ- construction industry, the selection of building material plays a
pivotal role. There have been continuous efforts to research on
the viability of reusable waste materials as alternative building
⇑ Corresponding author.
materials. Efforts have been ongoing to utilize demolition waste,
E-mail addresses: ashwin7588@gmail.com (A.N. Raut), cpgomez28@gmail.com
(C.P. Gomez). municipal solid waste, agricultural waste and industrial waste in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.055
0950-0618/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
276 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284

building materials [3–6]. However, most of the studies while The objective of this research is to understand the physical,
studying the incorporation of waste material have failed to address mechanical and thermal performance of bricks developed from
the thermal insulation characteristics of such material for improv- the locally available waste material which can be procured easily.
ing energy efficiency needs and mechanical performance. The research in more inclined towards the thermal performance of
To a great extent the solid waste industrial by-products have bricks as the proposed material is supposed to be thermally effi-
been researched for more than a few decades as a form of poz- cient. As all the raw materials are mostly by-product of industrial
zolanic material. Glass powder is one of such materials having poz- & municipal activity, the proposed product provides a sustainable
zolanic behaviour because of its high silica content. In Malaysia, alternative to existing energy consumptive fired clay bricks.
waste glass amounts for 3% of total municipal solid waste gener-
ated every year causing serious environmental concerns [7]. In 2. Prototype development
2008, for supporting recovering activity in Malaysia, 119 solid
waste recyclers were licensed. These companies provides alterna- The constituent material for developing thermally efficient
tive resources by recovering solid waste and reduce dependency bricks are glass powder, palm oil fly ash, oil palm fibres, crusher
on natural resources. There is scope of utilizing recycled glass from dust, lime, and water.
recovered solid waste and incorporate it as a supplementary
cementiotious material [8]. There are various types of glass based 2.1. Raw materials
on its chemical composition: soda-lime glass, vitreous glass,
borosilicate glass, lead glass, barium glass, etc. Most commonly (i) Glass powder: Scrap of broken glass were procured from local
used glass is soda-lime glass consisting of approximately 73% dump yard. This broken glass was brought for precondition-
SiO2, 13–18% Na2O and 10% CaO [9]. Thus, based on chemical com- ing where it was crushed for in a ball mill for 2 hours at
position powdered glass can qualify as pozzolanic material as per 60 rpm speed to form a finely grounded glass powder. Fur-
ASTM C618 [10]. There has been much research undertaken with thermore, it was sieved using 90 lm sieve to keep its parti-
encouraging results regarding mechanical performance and dura- cle sizes in check. Chemical composition by using X-ray
bility criteria for construction materials while incorporating glass Florescence (XRF) technique is shown in the Table 1. Physi-
powder [11–13]. However, high amount of alkali makes it vulner- cal properties such as specific gravity, fineness, soundness,
able to alkali silica reaction if it is used as a supplementary cemen- initial and final setting time, drying shrinkage, and determi-
tiotious material [13,14]. Several studies suggest that grounded nation of flow were determined and it is shown in the
fine glass powder which has a particle size below 300 lm shows Table 2. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of
very good pozzolonic reactivity without ASR expansion [15,16]. powdered glass is shown in Fig. 1(a). Also, X-ray diffraction
Also, to reduce the chances of disruption due to alkali silica reactiv- (XRD) was carried out which points out to the fact that no
ity, Byars et. al. [17] in his research has suggested the combined substantial crystalline phase was detected as shown in Fig. 3.
use of supplementary cementitios material such as fly ash, silica (ii) Palm Oil Fly ash: The palm oil fly ash was collected from oil
fume, etc. palm industry located at Kluang, Johor, Malaysia. The ash
Palm oil fly ash (POFA) is available in abundance in Malaysia collected was having a certain percentage of moisture con-
and possesses pozzolanic behaviour [18]. Each oil palm fruit bunch tent, to remove moisture it was subjected to oven drying
produces 21% palm oil, 6–7% palm kernel, 14–15% fibres, 6–7% at 110 °C. The dried ash was further sieved using 90 lm
shell and 23% empty fruit bunch on an average [19]. It is estimated sieve size. Furthermore, physical, mechanical and chemical
that, a single kilogramme of palm oil results in 4 kg of dry biomass characterization of palm oil fly ash were conducted similarly
[20]. The Malaysian oil palm industry generates 3 million tons of to that of glass powder (GP). The XRD pattern shown in Fig. 2
POFA in the year 2007 and it is estimated that production rate will suggests the presence of quartz mineral which is rich in sil-
increase due the expansion of oil palm sector [21]. Several ica, also proven by chemical composition represented in
researchers [22–24] have studied the usefulness of POFA as a sup- Table 1.
plementary cementitious material for enhancing mechanical per- (iii) Oil palm fibres: The oil palm fibres were also collected from
formance as well as durability of concrete products. Thus, the same company from where palm oil fly ash was procured.
combined use of glass powder along with POFA as pozzolonic As the fibres were in hydraulic compressed form,
materials can be treated as a sustainable step within the local con-
struction industry. Table 2
Enhancement of thermal performance can be done by introduc- Physical properties of POFA and glass powder.
ing pores in the matrix of the material. Studies have found that
Sr. No. Physical properties POFA GP
fibrous material possesses cellular pores structure which can
1. Fineness (cm2/g) 1348 1862
reduce the heat transfer rate significantly [25–27]. Coconut coir
2. Specific gravity 2.21 2.67
fibre, durian fibre, straw bale, cotton stalk fibre, and bamboo fibre 3. Soundness
has been tried and tested before for developing thermally insulated Le Chatellier expansion (mm) 1.2 0.8
composites. Also, studies there have been conducted on oil palm Autoclave expansion (%) 0.06 0.05
fibre for insulating applications [28]. On the backdrop of waste dis- 4. Setting time
Initial setting time (min) 166 144
posal issue of Malaysian oil palm industry as discussed earlier, oil Final setting time (min) 274 268
palm fibres can be utilized as a pore forming agent in proposed 5. Drying shrinkage (%) 1.805 1.801
material. 6. Determination of flow (cm) 15.5 19.6

Table 1
Chemical composition of glass powder and palm oil fly ash.

Chemical composition SiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) MgO (%) Na2O (%) CaO (%) Fe2O3 (%) Cl (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%) LOI (%)
Glass powder (GP) 68.89 4.147 2.717 16.938 5.904 0.52 0 0 0.568 0.316
Palm oil fly ash (POFA) 61.663 5.13 4.17 0.49 9.869 5.299 0.162 3.716 8.427 1.074
Lime 3.94 1.37 0.32 0.01 88.7 0.09 – – 0.02 3.53
 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284 277

Fig. 1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of (a) glass powder (50 lm); (b) palm oil fly ash (50 lm); (c) c/s of oil palm fibres (100 lm).

Fig. 2. XRD pattern of palm oil fly ash (POFA).

Fig. 3. XRD pattern of grounded glass powder (GP).

278 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284

preparation of fibres was initially done using Natural Fibre technique used in Taguchi’s method [29] shown in Table 4, where
Processing Machine. Then it was washed by using tap water glass powder (GP), palm oil fly ash (POFA) and oil palm fibres (OPF)
to remove any kind of impurities present on the surface. Fur- is varied as per the L16 orthogonal array technique. Oil palm fibres
thermore, to enhance fibre-matrix adhesion in bricks, were introduced as a percentage of the binder as it was having very
mercerization or alkaline treatment of fibres was done using low density. Lime as a binder material was kept constant.
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution. This treatment removes Initially, all the raw materials were batched and dry mixing was
the hydrogen bonding in the network structure as shown in done to distribute fibres evenly. All the mixing procedure was con-
Eq. (i). ducted in a mechanically operated concrete mixer. Dry mixing was
followed by wet mixing which was done over a time span of for 2–
Fibre-OH þ NaOH ! Fibre-O Naþ þ H2 O ðiÞ 3 min. The whole wet mix was poured to segregate and distribute
Fibres were immersed in 2% dilute NaOH solution for an hour, fibres evenly. The material was filled up in a mould and the mate-
afterwards, it was sun dried. The Physical properties if oil rial was compacted using vibration technique. The removal of the
palm fibres are shown in the Table 3. The cross-section of sample was done from the mould after 24 h. Further, it was dried
fibres was observed by using scanning electron microscopy for a couple of days which was followed by continuous curing for
(SEM) images shown in Fig. 1(c), in which it is evident that 28 days. The whole brick manufacturing process is similar to that
oil palm fibres have cellular porous structure. of conventional brick making process used for preparation of
(iv) Crusher dust: In the experiment, the filler material obtained unfired bricks, except the inclusion of pre-processing of raw mate-
from quarry industry provides a sustainable alternative to rials. The prototype samples of developed thermally efficient brick
river sand. It was procured from nearby locally available is shown in Fig. 4.
quarry industry located at Minyak Beku Batu Pahat, Johor.
It was further sieved by using sieve size of 2.38 mm. 2.3. Testing procedure
(v) Lime: In preparation of bricks, lime as a sustainable alterna-
tive to cement as a binder was selected. Chemical composi- To analyse the developed thermally efficient brick sample, the
tion of lime is shown in Table 1. testing procedure as per standard requirements is very crucial.
(vi) Water: The water used for experiments were taken from
UTHM, Johor. The pH of the water was 6.9.

2.2. Material preparation

The mix design for the preparation of thermally efficient bricks

is done by utilization of the locally available waste material i.e.
glass powder, palm oil fly ash, and oil palm fibres. Also, crusher
dust and lime were used as filler and binding materials respec-
tively. Mix design was adopted from L16 orthogonal array

Table 3
Physical properties of oil palm fibres.

Fibre properties Values

Avg. fibre length (mm) 25
Avg. Diameter (lm) 19.4
Tensile strength (MPa) 35.33
Elongation (%) 0.05
Specific gravity 2.13
Water absorption 24 h (%) 0.79
Fig. 4. The image of developed thermally efficient brick.

Table 4
Mix designs for thermally efficient brick.

Sample code Glass powder (% wt) Palm oil fly ash (% wt) Crusher dust (% wt) Lime (% wt) Oil palm fibres (% wt of binder)
M1 20 20 45 15 0.25
M2 25 25 35 15 0.25
M3 30 30 25 15 0.25
M4 35 25 25 15 0.25
M5 20 25 40 15 0.5
M6 25 20 40 15 0.5
M7 30 35 20 15 0.5
M8 35 30 20 15 0.5
M9 20 30 35 15 0.75
M10 25 35 25 15 0.75
M11 30 20 35 15 0.75
M12 35 35 15 15 0.75
M13 20 35 30 15 1
M14 25 30 30 15 1
M15 30 25 30 15 1
M16 35 20 30 15 1
 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284 279

Essential parameters such as compressive strength, bulk density, 3. Results and discussion
water absorption, porosity, thermal conductivity and initial rate
of suction were determined. Water absorption, bulk density, and 3.1. Physical properties of developed bricks
porosity were conducted on samples having size
210  100  100 mm3 as per the ASTM C20 [30] standard. Also, 3.1.1. Effects of fibres on porosity, bulk density, and water absorption
compression test was conducted as per standard ASTM C67 [30] The effect of porosity and density for developed thermally effi-
by using compressive testing machine having a capacity of cient bricks is shown in Fig. 6, it is evident from the graph that
3000 KN. The flexural strength of bricks were determined using porosity and bulk density for the developed thermally efficient
universal testing machine of 10,000 KN capacity as per IS 4860 bricks are in an inverse correlation. The porosity values for devel-
[31]. Determination of initial rate of suction was done as per BS oped bricks was in the range of 19%–27% as compared to the bulk
3921 [32]. Also, Microscopic examination including Energy- density of (1628.02–1338.7) kg/m3. A low density brick is the
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was conducted by using ana- result of pores, voids spaces occurred due to fibre inclusion. Both
lytical scanning electron microscope, for determination of the porosity and density are affected largely because of the ratio of
phases developed during the reactions X-ray diffraction (XRD) oil palm fibres. The structure of oil palm fibres observed during
analysis was performed. microscopic study reveals its cellular porous structure. Thus
To determine the thermal performance of bricks, thermal con- increase in fibre content increases void in the material. Lowest
ductivity readings were calculated using the relation between value of density was observed for a mix M15 with a value of
dry density (Dd) and thermal conductivity (T. C.) of material [33] 1338.7 kg/m3. As the low density bricks benefit the structural sys-
by using formula given below in Eq. (ii): tem as it lowers the self-weight of the structure. But due to porous
nature and the void spaces within the material, water absorption
T:C: ¼ 0:0559 eð0:0014DdÞ ðiiÞ capacity of bricks is hugely compromised. From Fig. 7 it is clear
that rate of increase in water absorption capacity shows a similar
Also, to validate the theoretical results, experimentation to
determine thermal conductivity was performed by using hot
guarded plate method [34]. For conducting experimentation, a test
rig was used, a schematic diagram of which is shown in fig. In this,
test rig heat was induced from the top portion which flows down-
ward, as the sample is placed between two plates, unidirectional
heat flow occurs. The heat flow at various points is being observed
by using thermocouples as shown in Fig. 5. The readings are
recorded in a data logger system. The formula used for calculating
thermal conductivity of material is given below:

dt
q ¼ k:A: ðiiiÞ
dx

where, q is the steady-state flow, k is thermal conductivity, A is the

cross-sectional area of the sample and dt/dx is the temperature
gradient. Fig. 6. Average sample bulk density vs porosity for various mix proportions.

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of hot guarded plate apparatus [34,35].

280 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284

Fig. 7. Average sample porosity vs water absorption for different mix proportions.

trend as that of porosity. This it can be interpreted that the amount

Fig. 9. Avg. compressive strength of bricks for different mix proportions.
of water absorbed is directly proportional to pores occurred due to
the inclusion of fibre content. The water absorption reported was compressive strength range between (15.39–7.21) MPa for all
well within the range of 618% as per ASTM C67 [30]. mixes. The gain of strength in the material is attributed to the
chain of reactions occurring between the pozzolans i.e. glass pow-
3.1.2. Effect of fibres on initial rate of suction der (GP), palm oil fly ash (POFA), lime and water. The amorphous
The capillary suction effect that draws the water from the mor- structure of glass powder stimulates the pozzolanic reactivity, as
tar during the interaction of freshly laid mortar and brick units can the alkaline activators such as Lime, cement, and alkalis (Sodium
be analysed using initial rate of water absorption (IRA). The initial and Potassium) acts as a catalyst. The amorphous SiO2 present in
rate of water absorption plays a significant role in bonding glass powder forms low basicity calcium silicate hydrate gel (C-
between mortar and brick units. From Fig. 8, the initial rate of S-H). The presence of CaO in both glass powder and POFA react
water absorption is below 1 kg/m2/min. for mix M1-M4, which with water to form a hydrated gel. Palm oil fly ash (POFA) also acts
has lowest fibre content among all mixes. As the fibre content is as a source of siliceous and aluminous material forms silicate and
increasing the IRA also increases. If initial rate of absorption is aluminate hydrates when reacted with calcium hydroxide in the
too low brick may tend to flow on mortar mix, which eventually presence of moisture, which develops strength in the matrix
affects masonry flexural strength, water tightness, and durability. according to ASTM 618 [10]. Also, restricting the particle size of
On the contrary, if the absorption is too high it may damage the glass powder and palm oil fly ash helped the reactivity to attain
mortar-brick bonding by absorbing water from freshly laid mortar higher strength. The reaction occurred during the hydration pro-
causing a reduction in water cement ratio (w/c) for mortar for its cess is as follows;
gain of strength. Drysdale et al. [36] suggested that initial rate of CaO þ H2 O ! CaðOHÞ2 ðivÞ
absorption (IRA) should neither too high nor too low, it should
be in the range of (0.25 6 IRA 6 1.5) kg/m2/min. The values of CaðOHÞ2 þ SiO2 þ H2 O ! C  S  H ðvÞ
IRA for developed thermally efficient bricks are well within the
range 0.2–5 kg/m2/min. given by AS/NZS 4456.17 [37]. Mix M9, CaðOHÞ2 þ Al2 O3 þ H2 O ! C  A  H ðviÞ
M13, M14, M15, and M16 shows values higher than 1.5 kg/m2/
min. whilst, M13 is recorded IRA value is 2.47 kg/m2/min., highest The influence of fibre content was very significant affecting the
among all mixes. strength of the developed thermally efficient bricks. From the Fig. 9
it is evident that with the increase in fibre content reduces the
strength of material. The reduction in strength may be explained
3.2. Mechanical performance of developed bricks
due to the fact that the fibre inclusion introduces pores which
eventually reduces the density of material as the packing of fibres
Fig. 9 shows average compressive strength of each mix
becomes difficult. Also, the poor adhesive bond between fibre-
proportion for developed thermally efficient bricks. The values of
matrix which can be affected by dimension, surface condition
and amount of fibres in given volume, lowers the strength.
The highest value of compressive strength was observed at
15.39 MPa for mix M4. It can also be observed that when the pro-
portion of glass powder (GP) increases compressive strength also
increases within mixes having same fibre content. Thus, it can be
interpreted that glass powder comparatively is more significant
than palm oil fly ash (POFA) for strength development. The com-
pressive strength of bricks complies with MS 76:1972 [38] and
BS 3921:1985 [32] for a load bearing bricks, however, bricks are
proposed for non-load bearing applications only.
Fig. 10 shows the flexural strength of newly developed ther-
mally efficient bricks. Graph shows that there has been gradual
increase in flexural strength as the fibre content is increasing, how-
ever for Mix M13-M16, it shows slightly downward trend. The
highest value of flexural strength was for M12 mix with an average
value of 1.625 MPa, whereas, M1 mix has 1.12 MPa lowest among
Fig. 8. Initial rate of absorption for different mix proportions. all. The reason behind the increase of flexural strength is reinforce-
 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284 281

Fig. 12. Experimental and theoretical thermal conductivity of bricks for different
Fig. 10. Avg. flexural strength of bricks for different mix proportions.
mix proportions.

ment of the matrix with the OPF fibres which distributes its tensile
strength to the composite thereby resisting more tensile stresses.
Fibres acts as energy absorbing mechanism (bridging action) and
delays micro-crack formation [39]. The Fig. 11(a) shows the failure
pattern of the brick whereas, Fig. 11(b) shows us the bridging
mechanism of fibres in the composite which probably responsible
for increase in flexural strength with the increase in fibre content.

3.3. Thermal performance of developed bricks

The addition of oil palm fibres in the mix proportion introduced

the complexity in heat transfer process. As it is well known that
porous microstructure of fibres lowers the heat transfer rate
through a material. Heat transfer through fibrous material is attrib-
uted to its pore geometry. In case of newly developed thermally
efficient bricks porosity, pore sizes and its distribution plays a vital
role which has solid matrix and pores consisting of fluid (water or Fig. 13. Relationship between porosity and thermal conductivity of developed
air) which ultimately influences the heat transfer through conduc- bricks for different mix proportions.
tion, convection and radiation. In the matrix of newly developed
bricks due to inclusion of fibres, the heat transfer process com- of dry density complies with the experimental values. The highest
prises of: Heat conduction in solid matrix/particles; Heat conduc- thermal conductivity was observed for a mix M2 having 0.543 W/
tion through pore fluid (air); Heat conduction in micro-gaps that m K value. Whereas, the most thermally efficient mix proportion
exist between particles; Particle contact heat conduction; Heat was mix M13 with thermal conductivity of 0.389 W/m K. It is evi-
transfer through pore fluid; Radiation from solid surfaces of pores dent from Figs. 12 and 6 that thermal performance of brick follows
(particle to particle radiation in pores). [40] similar pattern as that of density which points out to the fact that
Fig. 12 illustrates the thermal conductivity calculated theoreti- the proportion fibre content is significant in lowering heat transfer
cally by using Eq. (ii) as well as determined experimentally by hot rate through material. As the fibre have cellular porous structure,
guarded plate apparatus for developed thermally efficient bricks. the heat transfer through porous fibre may reduce to 0.025 W/
The values for theoretical thermal conductivity which is function m K (conductivity of still air: k = 0.024 W/m K). The relationship

Fibre
bridging

(a) (b)
Fig. 11. Flexural testing of developed brick showing (a) the failure pattern, (b) the bridging effect of oil palm fibre (OPF).
282 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284

Thermal Conductivity as a function of porosity for all mix pro-

portions of proposed material examined in the study is plotted in
Fig 13. The data depicted in Fig. 13 suggests a correlation between
thermal conductivity and porosity influenced by fibre addition. The
percentage change in porosity for developed brick is around 27.6%
as compared to thermal conductivity 29.4% which suggests that
the influence of pores in thermal performance is most significant
for developed bricks.
Compressive strength is most vital parameter for analysing the
mechanical performance of building materials. Fig. 14 gives the
relationship between the thermal conductivity and compressive
strength. The mechanical and thermal performance of proposed
material should obliged to standards is crucial. The low thermal
conductivity and high compressive strength is generally targeted.
The benefits of thermally efficient fibre based eco-friendly
Fig. 14. Relationship between compressive strength and thermal conductivity of bricks enables lowered heat transfer rate which enhances the ther-
developed bricks for different mix proportions. mal comfort of occupants within the building envelope. In addition
to this, due to the lowered heat transfer rate, the energy require-
between thermal conductivity and porosity shown in figure proves ment for heating and cooling load reduces, thus increasing the
that more the porosity lower the heat transfer rate. As the pore savings on energy costing. Indirect reduction in overall all energy
enhancement in this experiment can be attributed to inclusion of consumption has a significant impact on the carbon emission of
fibre, thus affecting overall thermal conductivity of material. the building during its utilization phase of building. As the energy

Fig. 15. SEM-EDX image (20 lm) of the binder phase from developed bricks.

Fig. 16. XRD patterns of hydrated sample of thermally efficient brick.

 A.N. Raut, C.P. Gomez / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 275–284 283

utilization is closely related to carbon emission. The reduction in 1764.1 kg/m3, it is evident that bricks have lower density as
carbon emission or energy usage in modern era contributes compared to some of the commercially available bricks which
towards environmental sustainability. Thus, the thermally efficient eventually reduce the dead weight of structure as well as it will
fibre based eco-friendly bricks contributes to the sustainability ease the handling procedure.
aspect of building material indirectly by enhancing the thermal 5. However, the higher values of initial rate of absorption proves
performance of wall system. to be area of concern. The initial water absorption for developed
proportions of hybrid wall material ranges from 0.72 to 2.47 kg/
3.4. Microstructural examination mm2/min.
6. The developed bricks focuses on the eco-friendly aspect in
Fig. 15 shows scanning electron microscopy and Energy disper- masonry material. The sustainability (indirectly and directly)
sive X-ray (EDX) analysis for the newly developed thermally effi- is achieved in the newly developed bricks by incorporation of
cient brick. To understand the interaction between pozzolanic waste materials and indirectly reducing carbon footprints in
material and lime as a binder SEM-EDX were conducted. In EDX the utilization phase of building.
spectra hydrated matrix shown in graph the peak height is propor-
tional to the amount of element present. The portion analysed is The developed thermally efficient bricks shows encouraging
rich in silica, calcium, alumina and traces of magnesia. The hard- signs for commercial manufacturing. Lower density, good thermal
ened gel consists of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium performance, satisfactory Mechanical performance by the brick
alumino hydrate (C-A-S-H) which have formed during the reaction provides an alternative for energy consuming, unsustainable fired
with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 as predicted earlier. The main clay bricks. The waste material incorporated as basic raw material
crystalline phases which were identified for the developed hybrid for the brick provides a sustainable, energy efficient alternative.
brick sample are quartz, calcite, calcium silicate hydrate and cal-
cium aluminosilicate hydrate as shown in Fig. 16. The presence Appendix A. Supplementary data
of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium aluminosilicate
hydrate (C-A-S-H) is confirmed by XRD analysis of the hybrid brick Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
material which is responsible for gain of strength. The formation of the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.
calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) is caused by reaction 2016.12.055.
between the silica and alumina with calcium hydroxide. Similarly,
the formation of calcium silicate hydrate gel is produce due to the References
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