Effects of Moisture Damage On Asphalt Mixtures

j o u r n a l o f t r a f fi c a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g ( e n g l i s h e d i t i o n ) 2 0 2 0 ; 7 ( 5 ) : 6 0 0 e6 2 8
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Review Article
Effects of moisture damage on asphalt mixtures
Hend Ali Omar a, Nur Izzi Md. Yusoff b,*, Muhammad Mubaraki c, Halil Ceylan d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tripoli, Tripoli, Libya
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
c
Faculty of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
d
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
highlights
The loss of bitumen-aggregate bonding strength due to moisture damage in asphalt mixtures is investigated.
General description of the theories and mechanisms related to moisture damage are discussed.
Contributing factors to moisture damage and methods to improve the bond between bitumen and aggregates are presented.
Special attention is given to various pull-off tests and its correlations with other tests result are listed.
article info abstract
Article history: The reduction in the ability of bitumen to bond with the aggregate surface due to the
Received 4 October 2019 infiltration of moisture has been recognised for years, and this deterioration phenomenon
Received in revised form is called moisture damage. In general, the loss of bonding between bitumen and aggregate
20 March 2020 shortens the service life of the top layer of the pavement. Many investigations have been
Accepted 25 March 2020 conducted to understand the mechanisms of moisture damage due to the loss of bonding
Available online 30 July 2020 strength between bitumen and aggregate and to find ways to improve and strengthen the
bond to mitigate the effect of moisture. This paper reviews the extensive literature on the
Keywords: loss of bitumen-aggregate bonding strength due to moisture damage in asphalt mixtures.
Road engineering The general description of the theories and mechanisms that explain the effect of the
Bitumen thermodynamic, chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics of the bitumen and
Aggregate aggregate on the bonding phenomenon are discussed in this paper. In addition, the causes
Asphalt mixture of and contributing factors to moisture damage and methods to improve the bond between
Moisture damage bitumen and aggregates are also discussed. Moreover, a description of the test methods
that can be used to evaluate moisture damage in poorly bonded and compacted mixtures
are also presented. Special attention is given to a well-known method, known as the pull-
off test, which has been successfully used to evaluate aggregate-binder bond strength, both
for laboratory and in-situ tests. This includes the test methods, the factors that affect the
bonding strength results and their correlation with other test method. A review of the
failure mode of bitumen under the pull-off loading test is discussed in the final section of
this paper.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ60 389216447; fax: þ60 389118344.

E-mail addresses: hend.omar@uot.edu.ly (H.A. Omar), izzi@ukm.edu.my (N.I.Md. Yusoff), mmubaraki@jazanu.edu.sa (M. Mubaraki),
hceylan@iastate.edu (H. Ceylan).
Peer review under responsibility of Periodical Offices of Chang'an University.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2020.07.001
2095-7564/© 2020 Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Owner. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (5): 600e628 601
© 2020 Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on

behalf of Owner. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
authors of this paper have used the word “bitumen” in the Eu-
1. Introduction ropean sense throughout rather than “asphalt” or “tar” when
referring to bitumen. The word “asphalt” has a similar meaning
The performance, durability and service period length of to “bitumen” in North America, but in Europe, “asphalt” refers to
pavement basically depends on how much of the bitumen can the complex mixture composed of various selected aggregates
be bonded and adhered to the aggregate surface under bound together with different percentages of air voids. This
different conditions. Generally, the bonding strength of the composite is often referred to as “asphalt concrete” in North
bitumen to the aggregate surface correlates with their phys- America. Meanwhile, “tar” is a liquid obtained when organic
ical and chemical properties, and bonding will be reduced if materials such as coal or wood are carbonised or destructively
moisture infiltrates the system. The effect of water on the distilled in the absence of air (Read and Whiteoak, 2003).
reduction in the ability of bitumen to agglutinate to the
aggregate surface was recognized in the early twentieth cen-
tury (McCoy, 1928). Since then, there has been much effort to 2. Basic information on moisture damage
identify the mechanism of moisture damage. Understanding
the process of infiltration of water that leads to stripping is The effect of water on the reduction in the ability of bitumen
very important to control and remediate the problem to adhere to the aggregate surface has been recognized since
because stripping or raveling and softening due to adhesion the early twentieth century (McCoy, 1928). To start searching
or cohesion failure can be an economic loss to society for a solution, it is essential to understand the basic
(Majidzadeh and Brovold, 1966). Lots of research have been information about the problem. The basic forms of
done on the identification of moisture damage mechanisms, moisture-related distress are stripping or raveling (adhesion
the classification of adhesion theories, the development and loss) and softening (cohesion loss). Stripping is the physical
modification of local and global test methods, the factors separation of the bitumen and aggregate produced by the
that contribute to stripping and the solutions recommended loss of adhesion between the bitumen and the aggregate
preventing or delaying the problem occurring (Stuart, 1990). surface, primarily due to the action of moisture. Softening
Evaluating stripping for asphalt mixtures began with a sim- may be defined as the general loss of stability, strength, and
ple procedure to evaluate the effect of the infiltration of moisture stiffness of mixtures caused by a reduction in cohesion due
in bitumen-aggregate systems, such as immersing the bitumen to infiltration and the action of moisture within the bitumen
or aggregate coated with bitumen in water. To make it more or mastic (Kennedy et al., 1984).
realistic, different types of bitumen were immersed with or Moisture damage (also known as moisture-induced damage)
without chemical materials in water, in some case for long pe- in bitumen-aggregate systems is defined as damage caused by
riods of time, or the samples were subjected to rolling, agitation, water or moisture and can be the loss of adhesion and/or the loss
boiling and freeze-thaw cycles. Some researchers like Fromm in cohesion. Different definitions of moisture damage are listed
(1974) evaluated bitumen samples that had been immersed in in the report written by Kiggundu and Roberts (1988). Most
water for a long time. The effect of the water was more researchers focus on the loss of the adhesion bond or the
complicate, and he concluded that water may enter the separation of the bitumen and aggregate surface regardless of
bitumen film by spontaneous emulsion formation or by the loss in cohesion, although the loss in cohesion is more
breaking the bitumen film at the air-water-bitumen interface. common (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003). Caro et al. (2008) note
The investigation into the mechanism of water damage began that the best comprehensive definition is provided by
simply, but it has developed and become more effective. Kiggundu and Roberts (1988), who describe it as “the
Today, special techniques are used such as studying the progressive functional deterioration of a pavement mixture by
surface free energy (SFE) (Cheng et al., 2001) and the atomic loss of the adhesive bond between the bitumen and the
force microscopy (AFM) technique (Nazzal et al., 2012), as well aggregate surface and/or loss of the cohesive resistance within
as more simple methods like the so-called pull-off method the bitumen principally from the action of water”. However,
using various test machines like the pneumatic adhesion before understanding how water enters the system and causes
tensile testing instrument (PATTI) apparatus and the Universal damage, there is a need to explain and understand how
Testing Machine (UTM) machine. bitumen adheres to the aggregate surface. The following
In this paper, review of pull-off test methods is carried out. To section highlights the theories which explain the adhesion
highlight the benefits of this test, it was necessary to discover the phenomena between bitumen and aggregate.
correlation between pull-off test results and another test
methods results in laboratory and field applications. The review 2.1. Theories of the adhesion phenomenon
covers pull-off test methods, the correlation between pull-off
test results and other test results, and the mode of bitumen Adhesion theories were hypothesized to explain the adhesive
failure under the pull-off load. It should be noted that the bonds which occur between bitumen and the aggregate
602 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (5): 600e628
surfaces. Many attempts have been made to try to understand 2.1.3. Electrostatic theory
and explain the adhesion phenomena and the loss of adhe- This theory was proposed in 1948, by Deryaguin and his co-
sion. It was found that the adhesion occurrence cannot be workers, who stated that the adhesion bond may occur due to
explained by one theory, due to the many factors that play a electron transfer between adhesive and substrate surfaces
role in creating adhesion in the bitumen-aggregate system. that have different electronic structures (Schultz and Nardin,
Many researchers have shown that it is difficult to find a single 1999). They added that the resulting electrostatic forces may
parameter that can explain the moisture damage problem. have a significant effect on adhesive strength. Hefer et al.
The adhesion theories that explain the adhesion bonds be- (2005) state that most surfaces are charged in the presence
tween bitumen and the aggregate surface are classified into of water due to the high dielectric constant of water, which
five types, as reviewed by Rice (1959), and Kiggundu and makes it a good solvent for ions. When the bitumen-
Roberts (1988). aggregate surface system is exposed to water, the mineral
structure of the aggregate easily collapses and ionizes, and
2.1.1. Theory of mechanical interlocking thus the adhesive structure of the bitumen film on the
This theory was proposed in 1925 by McBain and Hopkins aggregate can be broken and ionized (Yoon and Tarrer,
(1925), who stated that mechanical joints are possible only 1988). Hefer et al. (2005) explain that two layers are formed:
by using porous materials. In the pavement field, the the “fixed” stern layer (ions of opposite charge, or counter-
mechanical interlocking theory is used to explain the ions, bind directly to the surface) and the mobile diffuse
existence of a bond between the bitumen and aggregate layer (resulting from the thermal motion of the ions beyond
because of the interlocking that occurs when the hot the stern layer); together they form an electric double layer.
bitumen enters the pores and air voids and coats the The electric potential at the shear plane between the fixed
irregularities of the aggregate surface; after cooling, the and mobile diffuse layers is called the zeta-potential, and this
mechanical forces are established and formed. This theory can be used to analyze the separation between the bitumen
explains simply the mechanical adhesion bond regardless of and aggregate surface in the presence of water (Labib, 1992).
the chemical interaction that may occur between the The pH may have a correlation with the zeta-potential, as
bitumen and the aggregate surface, which is why this theory described by Labib (1992) in his paper; depending on the pH
is not preferred by some researchers. value, the zeta-potential of the bitumen and aggregate may
The physical properties of the aggregate have a clear effect have the same polarity, which causes them to de-bond in
on the mechanical bond with bitumen; more pores and a the presence of moisture.
rough texture with angularity lead to strong mechanical When moisture exists, pH can be expected to play a role by
interlocking (Kiggundu and Roberts, 1988). However, the influencing the aggregate surface charge. Two aspects should
texture and size of the aggregate particles lead to differences be considered with regard to bitumen-aggregate systems. The
in mechanical bonding (Masad et al., 2005). Although many first one is the diffusion of external water to the bitumen-
researchers have postulated that the surface texture of the aggregate interface (Fromm, 1974). The pH will differ
aggregate particles is the main factor affecting adhesion, depending on the environment. Secondly, researchers in the
bitumen viscosity was found to have an impact. The past found that the pH of the interface water is influenced
wettability of the bitumen depends on the viscosity of the by the aggregate surface (Scott, 1978). Fig. 1 illustrates the
hot bitumen and plays a big role in adhesion strength relationship between the changes in pH value when
(Schmidt and Graf, 1972). However, bitumen with high different aggregate powders are added to water. These
viscosity has a strong mechanical bond, even if the bitumen relationships reveal that most aggregate surfaces tend to
with lower viscosity can enter fine pores at the same increase the pH of the contacting water.
temperature.
2.1.4. Theory of chemical bonding
2.1.2. Theory of weak boundary layers Chemical theory is used to explain the adhesive bond between
The weak boundary layers theory explains that the failure of bitumen and the aggregate surface as a result of chemical
the adhesive bond may occur in the bitumen or substrate due to interaction. Schultz and Nardin (1999) stated that the chemical
weakness in cohesive strength in the interphase region bond may be considered as the primary bond in comparison
(Schultz and Nardin, 1999). Weakness in cohesive strength may with physical interaction, which van der Waals called
be a result of the existence of contaminants on the surface of secondary force interaction. The terms “primary” and
the aggregate such as dust, organic matter or water (Hefer “secondary” stem from the relative strength or bond energy of
et al., 2005). The existence of contaminants on the aggregate each type of interaction. It was found that the formation of
surface may lead to air being trapped during mixing with chemical bonds depends on the reactivity of both the adhesive
bitumen, which weakens the bond between bitumen and the and substrate.
aggregate surface (Tarrer and Wagh, 1991). Jamieson et al. In the pavement field, bitumen and aggregate are mixed to
(1995) state that weak boundary layers may be intrinsic to the produce the top pavement layer. The chemical reaction be-
presence of water on the aggregate, and the variations in the tween them occurs between active functional groups in the
pH values of the water lead to variations in their effect. bitumen and active sites on the aggregate surface. The bitumen
Cohesive failure due to the dissolution of surface layers in and aggregate type was found to play a key role due to the
carbonates occurs at pH levels lower than 6, while dissolution variation in their components. The interaction between
of silica minerals occurs at pH values greater than about 8. bitumen and the aggregate surface is explained in detail in
the substrate surface, the interatomic and intermolecular

forces establish at the interface to provide contact. The
interfacial forces result from van der Waals and Lewis’ acid-
base interactions. The magnitude of these forces can be ob-
tained from equations related to fundamental thermody-
namic quantities, such as the surface free energies of both the
adhesive and adherent (Schultz and Nardin, 1999).
Rice (1959) suggests that when bitumen and aggregates are
brought into contact, adhesion tension is established, but
water is a better wetting agent because of its lower viscosity
and lower surface tension than bitumen (Little and Jones,
2003). The adhesion tension between bitumen and
Fig. 1 e Changes in the pH of water in which aggregates aggregates is generally less than the adhesion tension
were immersed (Yoon and Tarrer, 1988). between water and the aggregate surface. Therefore, in the
presence of water, bitumen will tend to be displaced from
the aggregate surface (Hicks, 1991).
many papers; for more information, please refer to Curtis et al. The surface energy of any material is divided into two
(1991). There is a need to highlight some points that may components based on the type of molecular forces on the
provide information on this theory. Scott (1978) reports that, surface. These components are: (1) the nonpolar component,
when bitumen is mixed with aggregates, oxygen-containing also referred to as the Lifshitz-van der Waals or the dispersive
groups from asphaltenes are preferentially adsorbed on the component, and (2) the Lewis component or base and acid
aggregate surface. It was found that resins and ultimately component. Thus the work of adhesion between two mate-
asphaltenes represent the more polar fractions in bitumen rials can be obtained depending on their surface energy
(Robertson et al., 1991). In studies done by Plancher et al. components. Eq. (1) is used to obtain the surface free energy.
(1977), Petersen et al. (1982), and Curtis et al. (1991), the
carboxylic acids and sulfoxides in the bitumen were found to g ¼ gLW þ gAB (1)
be the most adsorbed by all types of aggregate, but at the where g is surface energy for any material, gLW is Lifshitz-van
same time they were most readily displaced by water, while der Waals component and gAB is Lewis acid-base component.
ketones and nitrogen were retained by the aggregates during To obtain acid-base component, Eq. (2) will be used.
moist conditions, although they were less adsorbed. Bitumen
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
adsorption and desorption behavior is dependent on the gAB ¼ 2 gA gB (2)
chemical composition of the bitumen and the chemistry and
where gA is Lewis acid component, and gB is Lewis base
surface area of the aggregate particles (Curtis et al., 1991).
component.
Aggregates vary in terms of their chemical and mineral
Three forces are included in the Lifshitz-van der Waals
composition; they are composed of one or more minerals. The
force: London dispersion forces, Debye induction forces, and
aggregates have polar sites on their surface that attract any
Keesom orientation forces. The Lewis acid-base component
polar species such as organic species in bitumen or water or
produces interactions that include all interactions of the
contaminants that come from rainfall or seepage. Thelen (1958)
electron donor (proton acceptor)-electron acceptor (proton
stated that, when aggregates are crushed or cleaved, new
donor) type bonds (Good, 1992).
surface atoms are created due to broken bonds in the
In the pavement field, where aggregate and bitumen are
structure. The new surface atoms try to form new bonds to
used, the interaction of the base component of the aggregate
replace the broken ones (Hefer et al., 2005). Jamieson et al.
with the acid component of the bitumen correlates with the
(1995) reported that, chemical sites on the aggregate surfaces
total bond strength at the aggregateebitumen interface
are associated with a high affinity for bitumen, including
(Bhasin, 2006).
elements such as aluminum, iron, magnesium, and calcium.
The work of adhesion is considered as the amount of external
Elements that may be associated with low bonding affinity
work that is required to separate two materials at their interface
include sodium and potassium. However, Robertson (2000)
in a vacuum. To determine the work of adhesion between
reported that neither bitumen nor aggregate has a net charge,
bitumen and aggregate using surface energy, Eq. (3) is used.
and their components form irregular charge distributions and
behave as if they have charges that attract the opposite qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
W12 ¼ 2 gLW1 g2
LW
þ 2 gA1 gB2 þ 2 gB1 gA2 (3)
charge of the other material. He described the reactions that
might occur between the aggregate surface and bitumen, at a where W12 is the work of adhesion between material (1) and
molecular level: basic nitrogen compounds adhere to material (2). The numbers 1 and 2 represent bitumen and
aggregate surfaces, and carboxylic acids in bitumen, while aggregate respectively.
they are polar, adhere strongly to dry aggregate. If the magnitude of the work of adhesion is high, the
resistance of the interface to adhesive failure is high (Caro
2.1.5. Thermodynamic theory et al., 2008).
This theory is certainly the most widely used approach in In the case of moisture damage, the adhesion between the
adhesion science at present. When the adhesive adheres to water and aggregate was found to be higher than that of
bitumen with aggregate (Cheng et al., 2001). To quantify the other hand, is composed of high molecular weight hydrocar-
work of adhesion of the bitumen and aggregate in the bons that exhibit little polarity. The bond that develops be-
presence of water, Eq. (4) can be used. tween bitumen and the aggregate surface is created primarily
by relatively weak dispersion forces (Tarrer and Wagh, 1991).
W123 ¼ g13 þ g23 g12 (4)
where 1, 2 and 3 represent bitumen, aggregate and water 2.2.2. Displacement

respectively. Stripping by displacement results from the penetration of
The potential for water to displace bitumen depends water into the aggregate surface through a break in the
essentially on the surface energy components of the bitumen bitumen film. The break can be caused by incomplete coating
and the aggregate (Little et al., 2006). of the aggregate or by film rupture. Film rupture may occur at
the sharp corners or edges of the aggregate as a result of stress
2.2. Moisture damage mechanism due to traffic load, or as a result of the presence of air trapped
around dusty aggregate (Fromm, 1974; Scott, 1978).
Since the effect of water on the performance and durability of The chemical theory of adhesioncan also be used to
pavement during its service life was established, researchers explain stripping by displacement. Changes in the pH of the
have turned their attention to the process of water infiltration water on the aggregate surface alters the type of polar groups
that can lead to changes in the system of the asphaltic adsorbed, leading to the build-up of opposing, negatively
mixture, causing damage. Moisture damage can occur in charged electrical double layers on the aggregate and bitumen
several ways: the most common is rainfall entering the surfaces. This attracts more water and results in the physical
pavement layer and flowing through the connected macro- separation of the bitumen from the aggregate (Scott, 1978;
pores; water can remain inside the mixture after rain; there Tarrer and Wagh, 1991).
can be a wet subgrade under the pavement layer; a humid
environment; moisture remains inside the aggregate even 2.2.3. Spontaneous emulsification
after mixing (Stuart, 1990), it was found that at least a The inverted emulsion of water or moisture in the bitumen
molecular layer of water can remain after mixing, requiring phase is called spontaneous emulsification and is related to
a temperature of about 1000 C to remove it completely from chemical theory. The inverted emulsion of water or moisture
the aggregate surface (Hefer et al., 2005; Thelen, 1958). in the bitumen phase will cause the bituminous particles to
Generally, stripping is defined as the loose bonding that oc- separate from each other (cohesive failure), which leads to
curs either at the pavement surface or within the mixture due to adhesive failure when the emulsion boundary propagates to
the infiltration of water. At the surface, stripping commonly the coated aggregate surface.
begins at weak points such as joints, areas of poor quality, or Spontaneous emulsification occurs when bitumen films
areas of high air void content. Stripping is also the bitumen film are immersed in water; the rate of emulsification depends on
separating from the aggregate. Many researchers state that the nature and viscosity of the bitumen, the length of time the
water is the major cause of stripping, and more than one wet conditions are experienced and the presence of additives
mechanism has been observed to occur at one time. Using ad- (Fromm, 1974). Fromm (1974) found that the presence of
ditives may delay these mechanisms but cannot prevent them emulsifiers such as clays and bitumen additives may
totally (Fromm, 1974; Scott, 1978; Taylor and Khosla, 1983). Some accelerate spontaneous emulsification.
researchers note that there are factors that accelerate the
occurrence of stripping such as high air void content, high 2.2.4. Pore pressure
temperature in a humid environment and high stress due to Water or moisture entrapped within the asphalt mixture can
traffic load (Taylor and Khosla, 1983). lead to pore pressure build-up due to repeated traffic loads
Five well-known mechanisms have been suggested that and freeze and thaw cycles. Continuation of the process for
can lead to loss in adhesion and/or cohesion, and a brief pore pressure build-up will ultimately lead to the degradation
description of each as follows. of the adhesive bond strength of the bitumen (bitumen-filler
mastic) and aggregate and thus growth of micro-cracks in the
2.2.1. Detachment asphalt mixture. An air void content within a range of 8%e10%
Detachment is the microscopic separation of bitumen or has a great effect on the formation of this mechanism. Above
mastic (bitumen-filler) films from that aggregate surface this range the air voids become interconnected and moisture
caused by the presence of a thin layer of water or moisture can flow out under the stress that develops under traffic
without an obvious break in the bitumen film. This type of loading. Below this range the air voids are disconnected and
mechanism indicates a loss of adhesion, and can be explained relatively impermeable, and do not become saturated with
by thermodynamic theory. When the water enters the water (assuming there is no water inside the mixture). Within
mixture, it reduces the surface energy between the bitumen this range water can enter the voids but cannot flow out easily;
and the aggregate surface; the wettability of the aggregate this entrapped water creates pore pressure inside the pave-
surface increases as the surface tension (or free surface en- ment under traffic loading (Terrel and Al-Swailmi, 1994).
ergy) of the adhesive decreases, and because the surface
tension of water is lower than that of bitumen, the detach- 2.2.5. Hydraulic scouring
ment mechanism occurs (Tarrer and Wagh, 1991). Hydraulic scouring or pumping occurs on the surface due to
Water molecules have high polarity and are attracted to the the action of vehicle tires when the surface is wet. When the
aggregate surface by strong orientation forces. Bitumen, on the tires pass over the surface of the pavement, the water is
pressed down into the voids on the surface. Eventually, 2.3. Factors that play a role in adhesion strength in wet
water is sucked under the tires into the pavement and the conditions
pavement is subjected to compression and tension cycles
every time a tire passes over it. This compression and ten- Pavement mixtures are a combination of bitumen, filler, and
sion cycle is believed to be connected to stripping. Some aggregate. Every material is unique and their properties have
factors may have a role in accelerating this mechanism; clay an impact on adhesion strength and behave differently when
and silt act as an abrasive and accelerate stripping (Terrel subjected to wet conditions. Although the main factor that
and Al-Swailmi, 1994). The hydraulic scouring induced by leads to loss of adhesion strength in the pavement is the
vehicle tires is discussed at macro-scale and micro-scale. presence of water, many factors have been found that may
More details are presented in a review work done by Wang accelerate adhesion failure. It is noted from the literature that
et al. (2019). some bitumen exhibits greater pull-off strength in dry con-
The previous five mechanisms are well documented in ditions but are weaker when subjected to wet conditions. The
most of the literature. In addition to the mechanisms listed designation of the mixtures differs depending on the bitumen
above, those cited from Read and Whiteoak (2003) are content, the gradation of the aggregate, the maximum size of
described as the following. the aggregate, filler content, the percentage of air voids, and
permeability. Any changes in any parameter may lead to
2.2.6. Film rupture changes in adhesion strength in wet conditions. The con-
Stripping may occur by means of film rupture despite the fact struction conditions may also play a role depending on the
that bitumen is well coated by bitumen. Where the bitumen mixing and compaction temperature; mixing time and the
film is very thin, especially at sharp edges, water or vapor can thickness of the pavement layer, and changes in the envi-
penetrate the film to reach the aggregate surface. When this ronment conditions (water, temperate, freeze-thaw cycles,
process starts the water spreads between the bitumen film and traffic load) can affect the quality of the mixture adhesion.
and the surface of the aggregate, leading to stripping (Read The effect of the mixing and compaction temperatures on
and Whiteoak, 2003). the moisture susceptibility of the mixture was done by the
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP)
2.2.7. Blistering and pitting and has been documented in NCHRP Report 763. In this report,
When the temperature of the pavement increases due to the investigation was carried out on the moisture susceptibility of
high temperature of the climate, the viscosity of the bitumen warm mixture asphalt (WMA). WMA is asphalt mixture that
in the pavement reduces. In the presence of water on the produced and placed at temperatures 28 C cooler than hot
pavement, the bitumen may creep up and coat the water mixture asphalt (HMA). The tests results confirmed that the
droplets to form a blister. If the temperature increases, the moisture susceptibility of WMA was more than the moisture
blister will expand and rupture, leaving a pit which allows susceptibility of HMA, due to reduction in the mixing and
water to enter the pavement (Thelen, 1958). compaction temperature. However, equivalent performance
of both WMA and HMA was observed after a summer of
2.2.8. Chemical disbonding ageing. Also, when anti-stripping was used, reduction in
When water diffuses through a bitumen film, double layers of moisture susceptibility was occurred in WMA (Martin et al.,
water will form at the aggregate surface. The water then cre- 2014).
ates a negative charge on the aggregate surface. The bitumen Many papers have reviewed the factors that contribute to
also has a negative charge, which results in repulsion leading stripping; these factors have been classified into groups. The
to stripping (Read and Whiteoak, 2003). first group is related to the materials' characteristics; the
Another two mechanisms were introduced by Kringos second group is related to the mixtures' designation and
(2007): advective transport (flow) and diffusion. The first ambient conditions before and after paving, such as con-
mechanism is a macroscopic phenomenon that occurs due struction, environmental conditions, traffic, and drainage of
to the layer-by-layer washing away of mastic film as a result the surface (Bahia and Ahmad, 1999; Graf, 1986). The
of the flow of water. The outer layer is removed, and the information presented in Table 1 is taken from Bahia's paper
next layer is exposed to the water flow and so on. By with additional information.
continuing the action of flowing water, damage will occur.
Diffusion can lead to two different types of failure: interface
failure and dispersion of the mastic. Interface failure 3. How to improve the bond system
happens when the water permeates the mastic and reaches
the interface, weakening it and causing adhesion failure. It is more than clear that there is no way to prevent the infil-
Dispersion of the mastic occurs when water weakens the tration of water or moisture into the layers of road pavement.
mastic concentration, leading to a loss of cohesion strength Pavement engineers have tried to enhance the bond strength
(Kringos and Scarpas, 2005, 2008). of the mixture in several ways.
It is clear that many factors, such as high temperature, The designation of the pavement mixture is very impor-
dust, the chemical and physical properties of the bitumen and tant; it is clear that the air voids content play a major role in
aggregate, contribute to these mechanisms and accelerate resistance to moisture damage. The size and distribution of
stripping occurrence. In the next section, the general factors the air voids in the mixture depend mainly on the gradation of
are listed in Table 1 to simplify the review. the aggregate, bitumen content, and the mixing and
606
Table 1 e Variables affecting moisture damage in asphalt mixtures.
Variable Influenced property Desirable feature Reference
First group
Bitumen Viscosity High Schmidt and Graf (1972)
The source Not defined Tunnicliff and Root (1982)
Film thickness Thick Hicks (1991)
Chemical parameters Phenolic groups and nitrogen bases Jamieson et al. (1995)
Additive Hydrated lime, amines, polymer Hicks (1991)
Moisture diffusion coefficient As low as possible Kringos and Scarpas (2005)
Aggregate particle Texture of surface Rough Yoon and Tarrer (1988)
Surface cleanliness No fines or dust Kandhal (1980)
Porosity Sufficient pore size to absorb bitumen Yoon and Tarrer (1988)
Mineralogy Basic aggregate type Graf (1986)
Chemical composition More calcium oxide Howson et al. (2012)
Less silicon dioxide
J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (5): 600e628

Presence of calcium, magnesium and iron Bagampadde et al. (2005)
Surface chemistry Ability to form hydrogen bonds Little and Jones (2003)
Surface moisture Dry Taylor and Khosla (1983)
Treatment with hydrated lime Reduces the acid SFE and increases the base SFE Hesami et al. (2013)
Hydrated lime treatment method Adding dry hydrated lime to wet aggregate Stuart (1990)
Second group
Mixture property Bitumen content High content Schmidt and Graf (1972)
Void ratio Less than 6% or more than 15% Al-Swailmi and Terrel (1992)
Permeability Less than 100 105 cm/s Choubane et al. (1998)
Mixing temperature High sufficiently to coat aggregate surface Kennedy et al. (1984)
Stiffness High Airey et al. (2008)
Bitumen-aggregate interaction High electrostatic forces or hydrogen bonding, or Van der Waals interactions. Hicks (1991)
High acid component of bitumen and base component of aggregates Cheng et al. (2002a, b)
Calcium ions on aggregate surface with carboxylic acids in a bitumen Howson et al. (2012)
Moisture diffusion coefficient of the mastic Low Kringos and Scarpas (2005)
Gradation Very dense or open graded Hicks (1991)
Filler
Mineralogy Basic Petersen et al. (1982)
Treatment Treated with hydrated lime Airey et al. (2008)
Construction condition Rainfall and/or snow No rainfall or snow Hicks (1991)
Compaction Depends on mixture design Graf (1986)
Temperature Warm Hicks (1991)
Moisture in site No moisture Kandhal et al. (1989)
Field factors after construction
Traffic effect Traffic load Minimal traffic load Majidzadeh and Brovold (1966)
Drainage effect Surface drainage Good drainage Hicks (1991)
Subsurface drainage Increasing the depth for drains at the shoulder edge Kandhal (1992)
High water table Low water table Kandhal et al. (1989)
Temperature effect Freeze-thaw cycle Minimal Scherocman et al. (1986)
Cool-warm cycle Minimal Hicks (1991)
Temperature Moderate Stuart (1990)
Others Rainfall and/or snow Minimal Hicks (1991)
pH of field water Controlled pH Yoon and Tarrer (1988)
compaction processes. For more information, please refer to completely explained by the reaction between the calcium
the review study of Caro et al. (2008). from the lime and the acids in the bitumen; the lime
New parameters called moisture diffusion coefficients were provides calcium ions that are distributed on the aggregate
introduced by Kringos (2007) for bitumen and mastic. She states surface and replace hydrogen, sodium, potassium, or other
that these moisture diffusion coefficients should be as low as cations (Schmidt and Graf, 1972). General information about
possible to reduce the effect of moisture on the pavement the benefits of adding hydrated lime in resisting moisture
mixture. She adds that if the moisture diffusion coefficient of damage and the methods of adding it are descried in a
the mastic is very low, the aggregate-mastic interface will not report by Stuart (1990).
reach its critical moisture state and thus no stripping will Many types of polymers such as polyethylene (PE), poly-
occur. Another parameter, the so-called moisture propylene (PP), ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), ethylene-butyl
susceptibility parameter, was also introduced; this parameter acrylate (EBA), styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS), and styrene-
should also be as low as possible to enhance the bond strength isoprene-styrene (SIS) are used in the pavement field (Becker
between the mastic and aggregate, especially in wet conditions. et al., 2001). Using polymers as additives is found to enhance
By using additive, studying the effect of the additive on the the performance of the mixtures in general and specifically
adhesion properties has attracted most researchers in the strengthen the adhesion of the bitumen-aggregate system,
pavement field. Hicks (1991) states that SiOH groups in siliceous resulting in an increase the resistance to water damage.
aggregates form hydrogen bonds with carboxylic acid groups Anti-stripping agents and polymers were used by Kanitpong
from bitumen and strongly affect the adhesion between the et al. (2006), who found that using polymeric additives
bitumen and aggregate; however, this hydrogen bond is increases the resistance of asphalt mixtures to moisture
quickly broken in the presence of water. Work conducted by damage more than anti-stripping additives for the two
Plancher et al. (1977) found that the carboxylic acids were the aggregate types (granite and limestone) used in the study. A
compound type most selectively adsorbed by most aggregate search was conducted by Gorkem and Sengoz (2009), who
surfaces, was also the compound type most readily displaced found that polymers show different results depending on
by water. Indeed, using additive was the only solution to their type. The addition of SBS polymer shows a greater
enhance the adhesion between bitumen and aggregate, and degree of improvement in the resistance of asphalt mixtures
this enhancement is reflected in the performance of the to the effect of water compared to EVA polymer. However,
mixture. Most studies report that adding additives such as the results obtained by Arifuzzaman (2011) did show that
anti-stripping agents, hydrated lime, fly ash, crumb rubber, although bitumen modified by SBS has a higher adhesion
polymers, etc. to bitumen enhances the adhesion between force in dry conditions, the ratio of wet to dry adhesion
the bitumen and aggregate (King et al., 1986). forces for bitumen modified with EVA was higher than SBS.
Some researchers have discovered that the additives have Recently, some researchers have reported that using
a different effect on the mixtures’ performance in the labo- nanomaterials as an additive with bitumen may strengthen
ratory (Gorkem and Sengoz, 2009; Kanitpong et al., 2006). its properties. A study done by Nazzal et al. (2012) using the
Some kinds of anti-stripping agents were not effective. atomic force microscopy (AFM) technique discovered that
Fromm (1974) declares that using some commercial anti- using nano-clay as an additive with bitumen significantly
stripping additives with bitumen results in better aggregate enhanced the adhesive force of the bitumen, although in
coating, but cannot prevent or even delay stripping later contrast it slightly decreased the cohesive forces within the
when the samples were immersed in water. bitumen used in same study. A study by Omar et al. (2018)
Amine anti-stripping agents are generally used to improve used nano-clay as a modifier for bitumen. It was observed
the adhesion of bitumen with siliceous aggregates. The amine that the high surface energy of the nano-clay improved the
group reacts with the aggregate surface while the hydrophobic SFE of modified asphalt, thus enhancing water resistance.
hydrocarbon chain of the fatty amine is anchored in the Nano-clay is able to significantly improve the adhesion
bitumen (Lucas Jr. et al., 2019a, b; Tarrer and Wagh, 1991). between asphalt and aggregates, and this produced a
Logaraj (2002) clarifies that there are two main characteristics superior hydrophobic properties of the modified asphalt.
of anti-stripping additives. First, they have a polar amine end Many reviews have been published regarding the benefits
group which will chemically bond with the siliceous of using nano-materials to improve the moisture susceptibil-
aggregate surface, and second, they have a hydrocarbon ity of asphalt mixtures (Gehlot, 2018; Martinho and Farinha,
chain with similar properties to that of the bitumen so that 2017; Yang et al., 2020), all of which showed a general
they will interact and become part of the bitumen. benefit of using nano-materials. Numerous studies have
Surprisingly, it was found that amine-based anti-stripping shown that the incorporation of nano-materials can
agent, with 0.2% content (by weight of the asphalt binder) not significantly improve the moisture susceptibility of a
only improved the resistance of moisture damage, but also mixture or decrease the potential of moisture damage of
showed greater fatigue life when compared to mixtures with modified asphalt mixtures.
control bitumen binder (Lucas Jr. et al., 2019a).
Hydrated lime is commonly used as an anti-stripping agent
due to its benefits; hydrated lime improves bitumen-aggregate 4. Test methods used to evaluate water
adhesion by interacting with carboxylic acids and forming damage
insoluble salts that are readily adsorbed at the aggregate
surface (Plancher et al., 1977). However, the effectiveness of Many test methods have been used to evaluate and estimate
hydrated lime as an anti-stripping agent cannot be stripping caused by the infiltration of water into asphalt
mixtures. Moisture damage of asphalt mixtures can be esti- subjected to 4 h of agitation to accelerate stripping. Inspection
mated visually by some tests, although not accurately. With the is visual (Solaimanian et al., 2003). The dynamic immersion
introduction of image analysis techniques and software pro- (DI) test was used to evaluate the moisture susceptibility of
grams, the degree of stripping can be carefully estimated from loose asphalt mixtures with or without anti-stripping
microscopically captured images (Gorkem and Sengoz, 2009). It additives (Do et al., 2018). Evaluation of the results has been
is important to mention that stripping tests may be performed done after 6, 24 and 48 h of rolling time. Its results showed
on loose or compacted mixtures for both HMA and WMA. good correlation with results of tensile strength ratio (TSR),
especially with DI results obtained after 48 h of rolling time.
4.1. Test methods to assess stripping on loose mixtures
4.1.1.3. Chemical immersion test. In this test, a sample of loose
These test methods are fast, simple, and less costly to run mixture is mixed and dried in an oven at 110 C. After cooling,
than tests conducted on compacted specimens. Another the sample is immersed in boiling water containing a con-
advantage is that they require simple equipment and pro- centration of sodium carbonate and boiled for one minute.
cedures. But in contrast, their major disadvantages are that The sample is visually examined for stripping after it is dry.
the tests are not capable of taking pore pressure, traffic action, The concentration of the solution is numbered from 0 to 9:0
and the mixture's mechanical properties into account refers to distilled water, 1 refers to 0.41 g of added sodium
(Solaimanian et al., 2003). In 1937, Saville and Axon (1937) carbonate to 1 L of distilled water, and 9 refers to the highest
conducted some test methods such as the Nicholson test concentration of sodium carbonate. Stripping is visually esti-
and boil test to determine the adsorptive ability of the mated (Solaimanian et al., 2003). However, the artificial
aggregate for bituminous materials. They state that the test conditions of the test are unlikely to predict likely
results were fraught with too much fluctuation to justify performance in the field (Read and Whiteoak, 2003).
unqualified conclusions. They pointed out that methods that
are satisfactory in testing fine aggregate may not be 4.1.1.4. Stripping test (California test 302). This is a modified
adaptable for course aggregate. It is very important to apply version of the static immersion test AASHTO T182 (coating
conditions that reflect the field conditions more than and stripping of bitumen-aggregate mixtures) (Solaimanian
following the steps in any test procedure to make the results et al., 2003). The test procedure, as described in California
applicable to real-life conditions. test 302, involves separated particles of aggregate coated
In this part, a simple description of the tests is given to with bitumen placed in an oven at 60 C for 15e18 h and
highlight the diversity of test methods and to note the de- then cooled for 2 h and placed in a container with distilled
velopments made in an attempt to assess adhesion in different or de-ionized water. The container is placed in the testing
conditions to simulate the field environment in lab work. apparatus and rotated for 15 min. The container is viewed
beneath a fluorescent light and an estimation of the
4.1.1. Test methods evaluated visually percentage of aggregate stripped is visually evaluated.
4.1.1.1. Static immersion test AASHTO T182. The static im-
mersion test is still the standard method under AASHTO, but no 4.1.1.5. Rolling bottle test. This test was developed by Isacsson
longer available as an ASTM standard (originally ASTM D1664 or and Jorgensen of Sweden in 1987. Aggregate chips are mixed
Nicholson stripping test). To conduct the test, a bitumen and with bitumen and placed in a glass jar that filled with water.
aggregate are mixed and cured for 2 h at 60 C then cooled to The jar is rotated and then the contents are agitated. Period-
room temperature. The sample is then placed in a glass jar and ically, stripping of the sample is estimated visually
covered with distilled water. The jar is capped and placed in a (Solaimanian et al., 2003). Recently, the rolling bottle test has
water bath at 25 C and left for 16e18 h. The amount of stripping been standardized as BS EN 12697-2012. An investigation has
is evaluated visually (Solaimanian et al., 2003). been conducted to evaluate the affinity between aggregate
In the Nicholson stripping test, the loose mixture is and bitumen. The test performed in this study is extremely
immersed in distilled water for 24 h and the degree of strip- useful in discriminating the different combinations of
ping is observed under water to visually estimate the total aggregate and bitumen/mastics. The results of this test are
surface area of the aggregate on which bitumen coating re- very congruent with the values of PATTI retained strength
mains (Gorkem and Sengoz, 2009). Gorkem and Sengoz (2009) for the samples (ratio of peak tensile strength of conditioned
conducted the Nicholson stripping test to evaluate the effect and unconditioned sample) (Zaidi et al., 2019).
of additive added to bitumen on the stripping potential of
the mixture. The samples were examined under a Leica 4.1.1.6. Surface reaction test. Ford Jr. et al. (1974) developed a
S8AP0 stereo microscope after the Nicholson stripping test, technique to measure the amount of exposed surface area
and the degree of stripping could be carefully estimated on bitumen-coated mineral aggregate particles after they
from microscopically captured images. They found a good have been subjected to the stripping effects of water. The
correlation between the Nicholson stripping test and the test procedure is based on the principle that calcareous or
modified Lottman test (AASHTO T283) results with the same siliciferous minerals will react with a suitable reagent and
percentage of additive (2%). create a gas as part of the chemical reaction products. This
generated gas, in a sealed container, will create a certain
4.1.1.2. Dynamic immersion test. Samples of bitumen-aggre- pressure that can be considered proportional to the mineral
gate mixtures are prepared in the same way as for the static surface area exposed to the reagent. The reagent is typically
immersion test, but as an additional step the samples are an acid. The test is conducted on loose mixture after it has
been subjected to water stripping. A larger exposed surface stripping, and X-ray photons (XRF) to analyze the chemical
area will generate higher gas pressure. Although the test is and mineral composition of the aggregates he selected for
very simple, it has the disadvantage that it requires the use his study. The results gave a good idea of which type of
of highly corrosive and toxic acids (Solaimanian et al., 2003). aggregate has poor compatibility with bitumen. The results
of the both tests showed that there is no significant
4.1.1.7. Boiling water test. This test procedure has been difference between them.
standardized as ASTM D3625 (effect of water on bituminous- Kim et al. (2012) used digital image analysis of photographs
coated aggregate using boiling water). This test is useful as an taken of samples that were subjected to the boiling water test.
indicator of the susceptibility of aggregate coated with They found that this test has the potential to evaluate the
bitumen to stripping. If loss of adhesion due to water is indi- effect of adding anti-stripping additives to the mixture that
cated, further evaluation should be done using other test can minimize the loss of adhesion between the aggregate
procedures. Kennedy et al. (1984) developed the Texas boiling and bitumen. They reported that results from the digital
test as a quick laboratory test that could be used to evaluate image analysis for stripped aggregates are in good
the susceptibility of asphalt mixtures to moisture damage. agreement with the results from HMA mixture performance
The procedure requires adding a sample of loose mixture tests. This finding was also reported by Ameri et al. (2018),
to boiling water. The sample is boiled for 10 min, after which it and they stated that boiling test can be considered as an
is allowed to cool and floating bitumen is skimmed to prevent accelerated procedure in evaluating the moisture
it recoating the aggregate. The sample is placed on a paper susceptibility of modified asphalt mixtures.
towel and allowed to dry. The evaluation is visual.
Although Kiggundu and Roberts (1988) report that the 4.1.1.8. Methylene blue test. The methylene blue test is used
boiling water test has approximately 58% success in to quantify the amount of detrimental plastic fines such as
predicting moisture damage in loose mixtures, harmful clays, organic matter, and iron hydroxides that are
Aschenbrener et al. (1995) declare that this test does not present in fine aggregate. This test is recommended by the
represent real field condition of the mixture, and does not International Slurry Seal Association (ISSA) (Kandhal et al.,
take into account the mixture properties such as air voids, 1998).
permeability, and gradation of the aggregate. On the other To conduct this test, a known concentration of methylene
hand, this test has presented a good correlation with blue is dissolved in distilled water, and a known weight of
different laboratory test results, as some researchers have sample (passing through a No. 200 sieve) is dispersed in
reported (Kennedy et al., 1984; Kim et al., 2012; Parker Jr. and distilled water in another beaker. About 0.5 mL of methylene
Gharaybeh, 1988; Parker Jr. and Wilson, 1986). blue is added to the sample and stirred. One drop of the so-
Kennedy et al. (1984) conducted an extensive work on the lution is removed using a stirring rod and placed on a filter
boiling water test with different test variables. Their paper. Another 0.5 mL of the methylene blue is added and
preliminary testing indicated that there are three factors another drop of the solution is removed and placed on a filter
that have significant effects on the test results. These factors paper. These steps continue until the sample aggregate can no
are: the number of times the aggregate and bitumen is longer absorb more methylene blue. A blue ring forms on the
heated and mixed before testing, the mix temperature to filter paper, with greater absorption of methylene blue indi-
which the aggregate is heated prior to mixing, and the type cating larger amounts of harmful clays.
of water used for boiling. They report that this test is simple Kandhal et al. (1998) indicate that larger methylene blue
and easy to perform and can be performed either in the (MB) values correspond to lower tensile strength ratios from
laboratory during mixture design or on field-mixed AASHTO T283. For this result, the methylene blue test is the
materials. In general, the boiling test offers good potential to only test recommended to indicate the presence of
be used in detecting moisture susceptible mixtures. detrimental fines such as harmful clays that may induce
Parker Jr. and Gharaybeh (1988) used the stress pedestal, stripping in HMA mixtures.
boiling test, and indirect tensile test to assess the stripping
potential of asphalt concrete mixtures. The tests were 4.1.2. Test methods evaluated based on determination
applied to surface and base-bitumen mixtures. The boiling (calculation)
and indirect tensile tests were found to be most promising 4.1.2.1. Net adsorption test. The net adsorption test (NAT) was
and had reasonably good correlation, which improves their developed in the early 1990s under Strategic Highway
credibility as predictors of stripping when applied to specific Research Program (SHRP) and documented in the Strategic
mixes. This result is similar to a study conducted by Highway Research Program (SHRP) Report A-341. The test can
Kennedy and Ping (1991), who examined the effect of be used to determine the affinity and compatibility of an
hydrated lime and liquid additive on resistance to moisture bitumen-aggregate system and its sensitivity to water (Curtis
damage. et al., 1993). The test as summarized by Solaimanian et al.
By using the boiling test, Yoon and Tarrer (1988) tested (2003) has two steps. First, bitumen is adsorbed onto
different types of aggregates, varying in pore volume and aggregate from a toluene solution; the amount of bitumen
surface area and chemical and electrochemical surface remaining in solution is measured, and the amount of
properties. The boiling water test was able to identify the bitumen adsorbed to the aggregate is determined. Second,
aggregate that exhibited high susceptibility to stripping. water is introduced into the system; bitumen is desorbed
Lu (2005) used the boiling water test ASTM D3625 in his from the aggregate surface, the bitumen present in the
work to evaluate the susceptibility of the aggregate to solution is measured, and the amount remaining on the
aggregate surface is calculated. The amount of bitumen procedures, please refer to Bhasin (2006), Bhasin and Little
remaining on the surface after desorption is termed net (2007), Cheng et al. (2001, 2002a, 2002b), Little et al. (2006)
adsorption. and Wasiuddin (2007). Studies have found that the Wilhelmy
A study conducted by Scholz et al. (1994) indicated that plate method and universal sorption device are the most
predictions of the water sensitivity of the bitumen as commonly used methods.
proposed by NAT show little or no correlation with wheel- In a study conducted by Cheng et al. (2002a, b), the surface
tracking tests on the mixtures. energy of bitumen was measured by using the Wilhelmy plate
method while the universal sorption device (USD) was used
4.1.2.2. Ultrasonic energy method. An attempt was made by for the aggregate. The USD was able to accommodate the
McCann and Sebaaly (2001) to quantify stripping using peculiarity of sample size, irregular shape, mineralogy, and
ultrasonic technology. In this method, ultrasonic energy is surface texture. The results were similar to those of other
transmitted throughout a water bath in the form of sound research that used the conventional test methods to
waves from a piezoelectric transducer attached to the evaluate stripping and concluded that the pavements will
bottom of the water tank. The pulsating action produced not experience stripping if no moisture can get into the
from the sound waves creates pressurization and then bitumen and aggregate system. They added that aged
cavitation in the water bath. Bubbles are created and grow pavements are more vulnerable to stripping, as aging
in size until they reach a critical diameter. Eventually, reduces both bitumen cohesion and adhesion with
implosion occurs. The pressurization and implosion of the aggregates.
bubble imparts ultrasonic energy and causes a loss of As previously found by other researchers, it is well known
bonding (displacement and detachment) between the that acidic granite is more susceptible to stripping than basic
bitumen and aggregate. The extent of bond loss is a function limestone. The results obtained by means of the SFE method
of time. This test is able to distinguish between different point to the same conclusion (Cheng et al., 2002a, b;
types and amounts of bitumen, aggregate type, and using Wasiuddin, 2007). The SFE method is able to distinguish
lime as an additive in the loose mixtures. The test results between bitumen types as well as aggregate types (Cheng
were analogous to the results obtained from a tensile et al., 2002a, b; Wasiuddin, 2007).
strength test after 18 cycles of freeze-thaw conditioning Wasiuddin (2007) used the Wilhelmy plate method for SFE
(McCann and Sebaaly, 2001). to evaluate different anti-stripping additives that are widely
used in the pavement field in different conditions such as
4.1.2.3. Surface free energy method. Surface free energy has dry-wet conditions and unaged and aged bitumen. He
been used in many fields of engineering for decades to concluded that using the SFE characteristics of aggregates
determine the ability of one material to adhere to another. In and bitumen is a useful tool for the evaluation of the
the pavement field, surface free energy has been applied to effectiveness of different additives used in asphalt mixtures
determine the adhesive bond energy of bitumen-aggregate under different conditions (Wasiuddin, 2007).
combinations, and the cohesive bond energy of bitumen. The SFE for bitumen was determined using the sessile drop
surface free energy of a solid (or a liquid) is defined as the work method, while the SFE for fillers was measured using the
needed to create a unit area of new surface of a material in a column wicking method in a study conducted by Tan and Guo
vacuum condition. (2013) of the cohesion and adhesion of bitumen mastic in dry
In the past, many attempts have been made to measure the and wet conditions. Dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) was used
adhesion force by determining the contact angle and surface to determine complex modulus G*. The results showed a good
tension for bitumen and aggregate. In 1932, a study was con- correlation between the complex modulus G* and the work of
ducted by Nicholson (1932), who reported “in order to show adhesion. The higher the work of adhesion, the bigger the
how a liquid sticks to a solid, a measurement of the surface complex modulus value is.
tension of the liquid is essential”. He described a method Hamedi and Nejad (2016) carried out a study to identify the
used by Bartell and his associates to measure the surface effective mix design and the thermodynamic parameters for
tension of an bitumen-aggregate system, and the procedure moisture damage of HMA. The evaluation was done using
is discussed in his paper. The determination of the contact three types of aggregates with different mineralogical
angle of a liquid with a material is described as a simple test compositions, two types of bitumen, and three types of
if the density and surface tension of the liquid is known. additives. The WP and USD were used to measure the SFE
However, measuring the contact angle between a liquid and components of the binders and aggregates, while the
a crushed solid is more difficult (Nicholson, 1932). Another indirect tensile strength test was conducted to determine
attempt to measure the adhesion bond using the surface the mixture's moisture sensitivity. Based on the results of
energy method was conducted by Ebberts (1937). the study, it was concluded that the SFE parameters were
Many test methods can be used to determine the surface determined by the combination of binder, aggregate, and
energy components of bitumen, such as the Wilhelmy plate anti-stripping additives. This means that a combination of
(WP) method, sessile drop method, atomic force microscopy materials that produce an asphalt mixture with higher
(AFM), and inverse gas chromatography (IGC). Test methods resistant to moisture damage can be selected based on the
that measure the surface energy components of aggregates SFE. Put differently, SFE is a very good tool for evaluating the
include the universal sorption device (USD), inverse gas moisture susceptibility of a combination of materials.
chromatography, the sessile drop method, and the micro However, the fundamental questions regarding the mois-
calorimeter. For information regarding the test method ture damage mechanisms in asphalt mixtures still remain. It
is still not fully clear which mechanism, or combination of the literature. AFM images have been found to produce high
mechanisms, induce moisture damage, and how these quality results when a scan rate of between 1 and 3 Hz is
mechanisms is influenced by factors such as temperature, used. By using image analysis through AFM, the wet sample
specific mix design, binder aging, traffic, water exposure time, of bitumen exhibits a rougher surface than the dry samples
and possibly the presence of other pavement failures (Soenen due to the moist conditions. The AFM test data were found
et al., 2020). to be repeatable. The wet/dry strength ratio obtained by
using AASHTO T283 correlated with the wet/dry strength
4.1.2.4. Pneumatic adhesion tensile testing instrument. PATTI ratio obtained by AFM (Arifuzzaman, 2011).
was initially developed by the National Institute of Standards Gong et al. (2018) investigated the effect of moisture
and Technology (NIST), and was utilized by Youtcheff in 1997 infiltration on the micro properties of bitumen by using
to evaluate the adhesive loss of bitumen-aggregate systems AFM. The morphology scan was done at a scanning
that are exposed to moist conditions. They considered several frequency of 1 Hz for a 40 mm 40 mm area. Nine points
operational parameters for the development of a protocol that were chosen from each scanning area for plotting the
can be a rapid, inexpensive, reproducible evaluation of the forceedisplacement curves. The variation in the penetration
moisture sensitivity of bitumen. The advantage of the PATTI grade of bitumen was observed, and binders with less pene-
test method is that it allows: (1) using any aggregate type; (2) tration grade were found to be less affected by moisture im-
conditioning the specimens in water after applying bitumen mersion based on the determination of the surface modulus.
between the pull stub and aggregate surface; and (3) observing This is primarily because the wax molecules in the bee
the failure mode to define adhesive versus cohesive failure. In structure hardly interact with the moisture. The adhesive
addition, the test method is low cost, simple, and well force ratio (the ratio of adhesive force between water-
described by an ASTM standard procedure (Kanitpong and immersed sample and dry sample) was calculated. The results
Bahia, 2003). The pull-off test method specified in ASTM of the adhesive force ratios showed that stiffer bitumen ex-
D4541 pull-off strength of coatings using portable adhesion hibits higher moisture susceptibility, which is in fair agree-
testers is a promising procedure to determine the adhesion ment with results obtained in a previous study done by Liu
of bitumen-aggregate systems (Copeland, 2007; Kanitpong et al. (2016).
and Bahia, 2003).
In general, this test is able to quantify the effects of 4.1.3. Test methods to assess stripping on chip seals
bitumen, emulsion type, bitumen modification, aggregate Studying stripping as a problem is not confined to the top
mineralogy, and curing conditions on bond strength. In surface layer of pavement, but can also be used on surface
addition, it characterizes bonding between aggregates and treatments and chip seals. Some tests have been developed
hot-applied bituminous binder and quantifies the effects of and are listed in the literature to evaluate stripping in this
conditioning time, conditioning solution, and bitumen modi- case.
fication. The failure type (e.g., adhesive or cohesive) can be
visually evaluated after the separation has occurred between 4.1.3.1. Immersion tray test. This test method is very simple.
the bitumen and the aggregate surface (Copeland, 2007; As described by Solaimanian et al. (2003), bitumen is heated
Jakarni, 2012; Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003; Miller et al., 2010). and placed as a thin film in a tray. The tray is immersed in
water and then aggregates are pressed into the bitumen.
4.1.2.5. Atomic force microscope (AFM). The atomic force mi- After a specified time, the chips are removed and the
croscope (AFM) technique is considered one of the nanoscale proportion of aggregate surface covered with bitumen is
techniques. AFM is a flexible high-resolution scanning probe estimated visually. The disadvantage of this method is that
microscopy technique which uses a laser-tracked cantilever the rate and magnitude of the pressing and pulling force for
with a sharp underside tip (probe) to rasterize over the sample the aggregate is different from person to person, which
while interacting with the surface. The different types of leads to variation in the results.
forces that can be measured by AFM techniques include me-
chanical contact force, friction, van der Waals forces, capillary 4.1.3.2. Plate test methods. The plate test method is similar to
forces, chemical bonding, and electrostatic and magnetic the previous test in that when preparing the samples, bitumen
forces. AFM techniques have been conducted on bitumen is heated and placed as a thin film on a metal plate. The
recently. The tapping mode imaging technique is a versatile aggregate chips are pressed or rolled into the surface of the
and powerful tool for scanning the surfaces of soft materials. bitumen and then the plate is immersed in water for a specific
Force spectroscopy experiments are used successfully on time. The adhesion of the aggregate chips is determined by
prepared bitumen samples to measure adhesive and cohesive blows to the back of the plate. The evaluation is made
forces, and AFM nano-indentation experiments are used to depending on the proportion of aggregate chips that still
evaluate the stiffness and hardness of the bitumen (Nazzal adhere to the bitumen (Solaimanian et al., 2003).
et al., 2012).
In a study conducted by Arifuzzaman (2011), AFM was used 4.1.3.3. Vialit adhesion test method. This test was developed in
as a nano-scale tool for measuring moisture damage. The France in the early 1960s to measure adhesion of the bitumen
results of this test show that it has the potential to and aggregate for sealing coat applications. The Vialit test was
distinguish between different anti-stripping agents and developed by the French Public Works Research Group and now
polymers that may be added to the bitumen to resist standardized in EN 12272-3. This test is easy to conduct and
moisture damage. These results are in good agreement with may be used to design bitumen aggregate systems for surface
dressing. This test can be used for bitumen and emulsions. In mixtures for both HMA and WMA, and developing a reliable
this test, an aggregate sample is pressed by using a hand- test method that can be used is still a big challenge. However,
operated rubber roller on a standard size tray filled with a it is clear from the literature that the modified Lottman indi-
known weight of bitumen. The material is allowed to cure rect tension test (AASHTO T283) is more desirable in the
under specific conditions before the tray is subjected to a 500 g investigation of moisture damage and evaluating pavement
steel ball dropped onto it three times from a height of 50 cm. materials than other tests due to the success rates in pre-
The impact of the ball causes detachment of the aggregate dicting moisture damage (Hicks, 1991; Hicks et al., 2003;
sample (California Department of Transportation, 2008). Kiggundu and Roberts, 1988). However, Airey and Choi (2002)
A wide range of variables can be evaluated in this test, such state that the immersion wheel tracker and the Hamburg
as using different types of bitumen and aggregates, and clean wheel-tracking device are more popular. In this part, a
or dusty aggregates. The test procedure can be subjected to general review will be made of some tests. The test methods
different conditions such as high/low temperature, ageing, conducted on compacted mixtures are listed in Table 2.
and dry and wet conditions (Read and Whiteoak, 2003). King A study was conducted by Shamshuddin et al. (2011) to
et al. (1986) used the Vialit test in their study to evaluate the present the development of the moisture sensitivity test for
effect of adding anti-stripping and polymer to the bitumen compacted mixtures. They stated that the existing tests
on the adhesion property. The samples were subjected to measure the relative change of a single parameter before
dry and wet conditions. The test results clearly showed that and after conditioning (i.e., tensile strength ratio, resilient
adhesion is improved when using polymer as an additive modulus ratio). These tests are simple to conduct and widely
with bitumen. Akbulut and Gürer (2007) used this method to accepted by most researchers, but their drawbacks include
evaluate the aggregate samples used in their study. A the empirical nature of the procedures, the dependence of
reasonable correlation was found between the Vialit plate the results on the moisture conditioning methodology and,
test results for the aggregate samples and the Marshall in several cases, the poor correlation with field performance.
stability and flow value of the mixtures. Several new approaches have been developed to overcome
For years, this test method has been kept essentially the the weaknesses of the existing method and to conduct the
same, although there have been a few modifications and test as closely as possible to field conditions. They added
conditioning in curing time, test temperature, the drop height, that the moisture conditioning methodology should avoid
the tray, the type and amount of bitumen, and the ball mass. using the vacuum saturation method, since this method
Coyne (1988) used a drop height of 40 cm instead of 50 cm and contributes to the asphalt mixture strength (Shamshuddin
paint can lids instead of a square tray. The test was found to et al., 2011). Table 3 enumerates some of test methods
be useful in evaluating the rate of set of emulsions in chip conducted to evaluate moisture sensitivity using new
seal construction. Shuler (1990) used glass marbles as a approaches.
substitute for aggregate in the Vialit plate test to reduce the
variability. Louw et al. (2004) used a tray with a certain 4.3. Methods to detect moisture damage in the field
roughness and a thickness of 2 mm. These textured plates
tended to perform better than smooth plates. Jordan and A developing new technique is necessary to monitor the
Isaac (2010) modified the tray type, the spherical mass, condition of the pavement in any stage during service life in
freezing temperature, and the cycle of freeze-thaw in the the site. Several systems were implemented for this purpose;
test. They state that using the modified tray enabled them to these systems provide good information about any changing
differentiate between polymerized and non-polymerized or damage that may happen in side pavement layers such as
emulsions. Different periods of freeze time and freeze-thaw cracks, deformation or segregation. Sensor systems were
cycles enabled them to evaluate and differentiate the subjected for investigation whether can be involved to eval-
performances of the polymerized and non-polymerized uate the issues regards pavement. However, sensor tech-
emulsions. niques used to evaluate of the moisture effect in the field are
Karasahin et al. (2011) used the Vialit plate test to examine not abundant due to high testing costs on optical fiber sensor
the performance of pre-coated aggregates with bitumen. In measurement system and field tests (Wang et al., 2014).
their study, different types of aggregate and pre-coated rate A sensor is a tool that can respond to a specific signal,
of bitumen were tested. The results showed that pre-coated based on the type of an input. The input is varied depend on
aggregates contribute highly to the performance of chip seal. the physical environmental phenomena, such as heat, gas,
light, moisture and more. The sensor can be introduced as a
4.2. Test methods to assess stripping on compacted new non-destructive inspection technique in all the fields.
mixtures Many problems regarding the pavement properties such as
cracks, deformation and moisture infiltration need to be
There is no doubt that the test methods conducted on com- investigated, whether immediately after finishing the pave-
pacted mixtures have more interest, as they imitate the real ment construction, or during the service life. But it is very
situation in field exposure conditions. Bitumen and aggregate important to define all the special features of asphalt mixture
are under investigation besides other parameters such as air regarding every individual problem as an input for the
voids and permeability. The effect of any changes in the developed sensor.
properties in any parameter can be studied alone or with Some types of sensors have been used to highlight their
another. An enormous number of papers and reports have benefits for measuring very important parameters during
been published about moisture damage on compacted service life of the pavement. For example, thermocouples and
Table 2 e Test methods used to assess stripping on compacted mixtures.
Used method General description Performance index Reference
Immersion-compression Measures compressive strength of the mixtures Compressive strength ratio (wet/dry) AASHTO T165, ASTM D1075 (Ismael and
test treated in 60 C for 24 h, 23 C for 4 h in dry and Ismael, 2019)
wet conditions.
Texas freeze-thaw pedestal Evaluates the cracks caused by numbers of Number of thermal cycles required to crack the samples Kennedy et al. (1983)
test freeze-thaw cycling (12 C for 15 h, 23 C for
45 min and 49 C for 9 h) for samples immersed in
water with stress pedestal.
Non-destructive tests Measures resilient modulus in dry and wet Resilient modulus ratio Razavi and Kavussi (2020); Taylor and
conditions of samples to be used in actual (wet/dry) Khosla (1983)
pavement construction.
Marshall stability test Measures Marshall stability for the mixtures Marshall stability ratio (wet/dry) AASHTO T245
which are treated in water at 0 C and 60 C for Stuart (1990)

48 h.
Lottman test Measures tensile resilient modulus for sample Indirect tensile strength TSR ratio (wet/dry) and stiffness Lottman (1982)
after conditioning (distilled water at partial
vacuum for 30 min, atmospheric pressure for
30 min, 18 C to 12 C for 15 h, 60 C for 24 h.
Modified Lottman test Similar to original Lottman test, sample's Indirect tensile strength TSR ratio (wet/dry) AASHTO T283
saturation should be 55%e80%, 18 C to 12 C
for 15 h, 60 C for 24 h.
Tunnicliff and Root test Similar to modified Lottman test, sample's Indirect tensile strength TSR ratio (wet/dry) ASTM D4867
saturation should be 55%e80%, 60 C for 24 h.
Environmental Measures resilient modulus for mixture samples Resilient modulus ratio (wet/dry) Al-Swailmi and Terrel (1992)
conditioning immersed in water for 30 min, 3 hot cycles at
system test 60 C for 6 h, one freeze at 18 C for 6 h.
Hamburg wheel-tracking Using wheel tracking to simulate traffic Number of passes at the intersection of the creep slope and Aschenbrener (1995); Park et al. (2017)
test conditions on compacted mixtures that are stripping slope
immersed in water at 25 Ce70 C.
Immersion wheel-tracking Using wheel-tracking to simulate traffic The dynamic stability Mo et al. (2012)
test conditions on compacted mixtures that are
immersed in water at 60 C for at least 4 h.
Flexural fatigue beams test Measures fatigue performance for samples Flexural stiffness before and after conditioning Shatnawi et al. (1995)
subjected to three repeated 5 h cycles of 60 C
followed by 4 h at 25 C and then one 5 h cycle at
18 C.
Static creep test Measures accumulated micro-strain for prepared Increase in creep (%) ¼ (creep in wetcreep in dry)/creep in dry Abo-Qudais and Al-Shweily (2007)
samples subjected to conditioning was
performed according to AASHTO T283.
Saturation ageing tensile Samples are immersed at 20 C for 30 min, after Retained stiffness modulus Airey et al. (2005)
stiffness (SATS) weighing, maintained at 85 C for 2 h, and then
85 C for 65 h.
Moisture vapor Covered sample is placed on an assembly to Hveem stabilometer California Department of Transportation
susceptibility produce vapor at 60 C for 75 h. value (2000)
613
thermistors sensors were employed to measure the temper-
n and Such (2004)

ature within any of pavement layer, multi-depth deflec-
Birgisson et al. (2004)

Khosla et al. (2000)
Gubler et al. (2004)

tometers (MDD) was also used to detect the occurred
Collop et al. (2004)

Reference
deformation within pavement layers (Weinmann et al., 2004).
Optical fiber (OF) sensors are one of structural health
monitoring (SHM) that was used to monitor the structure
Pinzo
behavior accurately and efficiently during service life. The
results of the field test data proved the potential of using OF
Uniaxial test-compression sensors for monitoring shrinkage in the pavement layer and
Indirect tensile test (ITT)
Indirect tensile test (ITT)

life cycle performance (Ansari, 2005; Wang et al., 2014).
Performance test
Special features should be exist in any sensor that used in

the site. A sensor system was developed and presented in a
work that has been done by Lajnef et al. (2013). This sensor has
Fatigue test
Fatigue test good characteristics to be able to withstand harsh condition

during construction (high temperature, vibrating and rolling)
of the pavement, and then environmental conditions during
service life, it is better to design them in small size and can
be installed using any of existing installation procedures,
Saturation using partial vacuum

self-powered, continuous, autonomous sensing and wireless

communication (Lajnef et al., 2013).
Table 3 e Test methods used to quantify moisture damage using a new approach after Shamshuddin et al. (2011).
Conditioning
Zhou and Scullion (2007) have used three different types of

sensors for different tasks. One of them called a ground
penetrating radar (GPR), was used for determine thickness of
the pavement layer, potential trapped water, and to identify
section break.
A recent study was conducted by Gao et al. (2015) and in
this work, a fiber optic hydraulic pressure sensor (FOHPS)
was chosen to measure pore water pressure of the
Quantify the effect of moisture damage on the fracture resistance
Examine the combined effects of ageing and moisture of asphalt
bituminous pavement at some running speeds in the site. By

Establish reliable assessment of moisture damage and recovery
Determine the cohesion and friction angle for asphalt mixtures
using laboratory test, a theoretical correlation was derived

between center wavelength of the sensor and the applied
Determine moisture sensitivity under dynamic loading
pressure. Three sensors were designed and subjected to

calibration before installing in the pavement layers as seen
in Fig. 2. The results proved that with the increasing car's
speed, the pore water pressure also increases. Also, with the
increasing hydraulic pressure, the permeability coefficients
of the mixture decrease, while increasing occurs in water
Criteria
infiltration rate on approximate linear curve with increasing

in hydraulic pressure, as shown in Fig. 3.
5. Introduction to pull-off test methods

after drying process
The pull-off strength of a material is its ability to withstand an

of mixtures
applied tension stress without failure. The pull-off test pro-

cedure is one of several methods which have been developed
to investigate the bonding strength of bitumen-aggregate
surface systems, but can also be used to evaluate the effect of
different conditions on bonding strength, such as wet condi-
Complex modulus approach
parameter, energy ratio (ER)
Performance based fracture
tions and freeze-thaw cycles. The effect of the moisture con-

Coaxial shear test (CAST)
Saturation ageing tensile
dition, ageing of bitumen and using additives added to

A simple uniaxial test
bitumen with variation in modification process, have also

Test
stiffness (SATS)
been evaluated with this method (Omar et al., 2015, 2016a,

2016b). The pull-off method has become a reliable way to
determine the bonding characteristics as it is a test
procedure with good reproducibility for routine use.
Evaluating bonding strength began before 1932. In 1932,
Nicholson displayed some tests that were used to measure
Year
2000
2004
2004
2004
bonding force, such as the Brown adhesive test, the cemen-

tation test. These tests determine the force required to pull a
strength as well, such as the rate of deformation, test

temperature, curing time, and conditioning. All studies
conducted to investigate bonding strength, tensile strength
or adhesion strength reach the same conclusions: an
increase in the rate of deformation in the test will lead to an
increase in bonding strength (tensile strength or adhesion
strength); higher temperatures weaken the bonding strength
of the bitumen; and wet conditions also weaken bonding
strength and lead to stripping (adhesion failure). The
bonding strength increases within the curing time up to a
point. Some studies suggest studying bonding strength for
up to three days (Copeland, 2007; Jakarni, 2012; Marek and
Herrin, 1968; Miller et al., 2010; Moraes et al., 2011).
Fig. 2 e Sensors location in the pavement layers (Gao et al., In the next section, a general review is made of some
2015). studies, highlighting the factors that affect the results of this
test.
5.1. Pull-off test method
5.1.1. Laboratory test methods

Several types of tensile machine can be used to assess the
adhesion bond of the bitumens. For all of them, a sample of
bitumen is sandwiched between two substrates (which can be
made from stainless steel, aluminum, or any type of aggre-
gate) and the pull (tensile) force is applied to one part of the
substrate, usually the upper part. Some parameters in this
method should be determined and identified, such as the film
thickness of the sample, rate of displacement, loading rate,
temperature, and geometry of the sample. The effect of these
parameters is important to evaluate the bonding strength of
Fig. 3 e Relationship between permeability, water
the bitumen. Samples can be subjected to different conditions
infiltration and hydraulic pressure (Gao et al., 2015).
such as wet conditions, freeze and thaw and more. Bonding
strength can be evaluated after a period of time; it could be 24,
wooden ball immersed in bitumen sample. Other tests 48 or 96 h. Many studies have investigated the tensile strength
determined the force required to pull apart two brass blocks of bitumens using this method.
cemented together with bitumen. Nicholson mentions that Majidzadeh and Brovold (1966), Majidzadeh and Herrin
none of these tests can determine the adhesion when the (1965), and Marek and Herrin (1968) are among the first
bitumen is in connection with aggregate (Nicholson, 1932). researchers to study the tensile behavior of bitumen in thin
Over the years, many studies have been carried out to films with the pull-off method. In the study conducted by
investigate the bonding properties of bitumen and aggregate. Marek and Herrin (1968), the intention was to investigate
Some of these studies were conducted in the laboratory and tensile behavior under various combinations of variables
some on site. As for any test method, some factors influence including the consistency of the bitumen, variations in the
the bonding strength between bitumen and the aggregate film thickness of bitumens, test temperature, loading rate,
surface in the test. The properties of the bitumen that most and source of the bituminous material. The thicknesses
influence the bitumen-aggregate bond are the chemistry of selected in their study depended on a previous study
the bitumen, viscosity, film thickness, ageing and surface conducted by C. Mack in 1957 and Wood in 1958, which
energy (Aguiar-Moya et al., 2015; Mohammed et al., 2018; stated that the film thicknesses of bitumen fall within the
Motevalizadeh et al., 2020; Omar et al., 2016a, 2016b, 2018; ranges between 20 mm and 600 mm in field compacted
Zaidi et al., 2019). Bitumen with high viscosity has a high mixtures (Marek and Herrin, 1968). All studies carried out to
bonding strength, but in contrast thin film thickness will investigate the tensile behavior confirmed the same results
produce higher bonding strength in dry conditions. Also, obtained from Marek's study. Temperature, film thickness,
with respect to surface free energy, low values of SFE for and loading rate have an obvious effect on the results; an
bitumen are preferable to provide better wetting. Aggregate increase in temperature leads to a decrease in tensile
properties are also considered to be important. The size and strength when loading rate and film thickness are held
shape of the aggregate particles, pore volume and size, constant, and an increase in loading rate leads to an
surface area, chemical constituents at the surface, acidity increase in the tensile strength when the temperature and
and alkalinity of the aggregate type, adsorption size, surface film thickness are held constant (Jakarni, 2012; Masad et al.,
density, and surface charge are some of the aggregate 2010; Omar et al., 2016a, b).
characteristics that influence bonding strength. The Other studies have been carried to investigate the bonding
parameters of the test procedure influence the bonding properties of bitumen-aggregate systems using PATTI. This
apparatus is well known for evaluating the adhesion strength substrates such as glass, stainless steel, and aluminum
for all types of bitumen, modified bitumen, un-aged or aged instead of aggregate. But it was found that their thermody-
bitumen and mastic as well. This test method is capable of namic properties are different to the aggregate's properties,
distinguishing between different types of substrates (aggre- leading to variations in the result that were not found in the
gate types), and a wide range of conditioning can be applied to field (Copeland, 2007; Jakarni, 2012; Masad et al., 2010; Moraes
the sample. PATTI as a pull-off test method as specified in the et al., 2011; Omar et al., 2016a, b). Using aggregate reflects
ASTM D4541, “pull-off strength of coatings using portable pavement reality and provides a better explanation of the
adhesion testers,” has been employed by several researchers, bonding phenomenon. Also, using different types of
and AASHTO TP91, determining asphalt binder bond strength modified bitumen and mastics (bitumen mixed with types of
by means of the asphalt bond strength (ABS) test. filler) in combination with aggregate types is another step to
To perform the test, air pressure is transmitted to the pis- simulate the pavement reality, especially if the results of the
ton which is placed over the pull stub and screwed onto the test give same trend of other tests (Mohammed et al., 2018;
reaction plate. The air pressure induces an airtight seal to Motevalizadeh et al., 2020; Zaidi et al., 2019).
form between the piston gasket and the aggregate surface.
When the pressure in the piston exceeds the cohesive 5.1.2. Site test methods
strength of the bitumen or the adhesive strength of the The pull-off test method can be used successfully on site.
bitumen/aggregate interface, failure of the specimen occurs. Special attention is given to the application to provide a bond
The pressure at failure is recorded and then converted into the between the pavement layers that should withstand traffic
pull-off tensile strength (kPa) (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003). and environmental stresses. This application is called the tack
In all test methods, the researchers faced some difficulties coat. The tack coat can be bitumen, cut back bitumen, or
when performing their test. One of the difficulties in the pull- emulsified bitumen. Emulsified bitumen is widely used these
off test is controlling film thickness. Controlling thickness is of days. The properties of the tack coat are very important to
most concerned when using the pull-off test method, as it is ensure its durability during service life, but the bonding
believed to improve the repeatability and uniformity of the strength is more important to ensure that all layers behave as
result. To control the thickness in the PATTI method, some a single entity, reducing cracks and deformation of the pave-
modifications have been made to the stub of the test. In 2003, ment. Some test methods have been developed to evaluate the
Kanitpong used metal blocks, as shown in Fig. 4, to control the bonding strength; some evaluate the tensile strength and
thickness of the bitumen between the pull-stub and the others the shear stress. In this section, the test methods which
aggregate surface instead of using 200 mm glass beads as evaluate bonding strength by measuring the pull-off force are
recommended by Youtcheff (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003). listed in Table 4.
Copeland (2007) used glass beads to control the thickness in Many test methods have been developed to evaluate the
her study in 2007. However, it is believed that using glass bonding strength of the tack coat in the laboratory and on site.
beads may affect the results of the test, and the uniform A device called the ATacker was developed in 2003 by Instro
distribution of the glass beads within the bitumen was not Tek Company (Raposeiras et al., 2013). The task of this device
confirmed. The glass beads between the stub and substrate is to measure the maximum tensile strength when de-
surface may be considered to be weak points that weaken bonding occurs. The test can be used in the laboratory and
the bond and accelerate the failure. Another modification on site. The procedure involves placing a steel plate on the
was designed at University of Wisconsin-Madison in surface of the layer after the tack coat has been applied and
conjunction with UAI; support edges were made to the stub then a tensile load is applied after the curing time. Another
surface to control thickness, and channels were made in the pull-off device called the University of Texas at El Paso
sub edges to allow excess bitumen to flow out from the stub, (UTEP) pull-off device was fabricated at the University of
as shown in Fig. 5 (Greyling and Jenkins, 2011). Moraes et al. Texas at El Paso. It is used to measure the quality of the tack
(2011) used the last modification with 800 mm thickness and coat in pull-off mode. Tandon and Puentes (2006) state that
stated that this modified stub can effectively measure the this device has the potential to identify the quality of the
bond between different types of bitumen and aggregate and tack coat by measuring bonding strength with variations in
the effects of moisture conditioning time. the test conditions.
Another modification made to the pull-off test method is
by using aggregate substrates. Most studies in the past used
Fig. 4 e Modified PATTI stubs (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003). Fig. 5 e Modified PATTI stubs (Miller et al., 2010).
Mohammad et al. (2009) carried out an investigation to method. They obtained the SFE of the bitumen from a study
evaluate the quality of the bond strength of the tack coat in conducted by Bhasin (2006) to determine the SFE of the
the field using the Louisiana tack coat quality tester (LTCQT). selected bitumen, and as they used stainless steel substrate,
This device was developed by the Louisiana Transportation the SFE for the substrate was obtained from a study
Center and Instro Tek, and is a modification of the ATacker conducted by Hallab et al. (2001). The sessile drop method
device. The modification includes automated operation and was used to measure the SFE for stainless steel. The ideal
the installation of electronic sensors for the measurement of work of fracture was calculated using the SFE, while the
the load and deformation. The obtained results show good practical work of fracture was measured using the pull-off
repeatability. Mohammad states that this device can test method. The practical work depends on the
successfully be used in the field to measure the quality of characteristics of the materials (e.g., time-dependent and
the bond strength of the tack coat. A good correlation was yielding properties) and on the experimental conditions of
discovered between the viscosity of the residual tack coat the test method. It was found that the results of the
material and the tack coat tensile strength. Mohammad practical work are a function of the rate of loading,
states that the softening point can be an adequate temperature, and rate of crack growth. Meanwhile, the
parameter to determine the optimum temperature for the values of ideal work are mostly attributed to the differences
tack coat pull-off test, and therefore pull-off testing at the between the true fracture surface area, which includes
softening point temperature of the residual bitumen micro-branches, and the nominal fracture surface area, or
material is recommended for field tack coat evaluation. due to other irreversible phenomena such as hardening
orientation. Although the numeric value of the ideal work of
5.2. Correlation between pull-off test results and other fracture based on SFE measurements is much smaller in
test results magnitude compared to the practical work of fracture
measured using pull-off test methods, these two values are
5.2.1. Pull-off test and DSR strongly related. This means that any small modification in
The DSR test is used to characterize the viscous and elastic the ideal work of fracture will have a significant impact on
behavior of bitumens at medium to high temperatures. But in the practical work of fracture. In other words, materials with
a study conducted by Kanitpong (2005), the DSR was used to larger values of ideal work will naturally show larger values
measure the cohesion properties of bitumen by developing a of practical work.
test protocol, called the tack test, to measure the thin film Howson et al. (2012) continued this work in 2012. In their
tackiness of bitumen. The tack test system (TTS) was study the substrates were aggregate instead of stainless
developed by Paar Physica USA in collaboration with the steel. The relationship between the bond energy and total
University of Wisconsin-Madison to measure the tackiness work of fracture were investigated. Bond energy is based on
of the bitumen, which represents the cohesion properties. fundamental material properties and is independent of any
The tack factor is an integration of the area below a curve external or experimental factors, and the total work of
measured using the DSR. The pull-off strength represents fracture depends on various experimental factors such as
the maximum tensile pressure measured using PATTI. The specimen geometry and loading conditions. The energy
relationship between the pull-off strength and tack factor in parameter (ER) was used to assess the change in moisture
dry conditions is very strong, as shown in Fig. 6. But there is sensitivity of the asphalt mixtures. ER was found to have a
no information about the result if the samples are subjected correlation with the moisture sensitivity of asphalt mixtures
to wet conditions. Cho et al. (2005) used the DSR to evaluate (Little et al., 2006).
the tack factor of bitumen, which represents the cohesion
DGadh DGcoh
properties in wet conditions, and they used PPATI to ER ¼ (5)
DG123
a
evaluate the adhesion properties. Although the samples
were very small (3 samples), the results showed that when where DGadh is the adhesive bond energy between the
the pull-off strength ratio decreases, the tack factor bitumen and the aggregate, DGcoh is the cohesive bond energy
decreases at the same temperature in wet conditions. This of the bitumen, and DGa123 is the work of debonding when
result indicates that the cohesion and adhesion properties water displaces bitumen from its interface with the aggregate.
are affected by moisture and correlated to each other. The term DGadh DGcoh represents the ability of bitumen to
wet or coat the surface of the aggregate, while a lower
5.2.2. Measurements of the pull-off test method and surface magnitude of DGa123 indicates a decrease in the energy poten-
free energy tial for water to displace bitumen from its interface with the
SFE has been successfully used to determine the resistance of aggregate and then a higher resistance to moisture damage.
bitumen to cohesive failure and the resistance of bitumen- The effect of moisture on the total work of fracture was
aggregate systems to adhesive failure in dry and wet condi- accurately predicted using the parameter ER.
tions. On the other hand, the pull-off test method can be a Xu et al. (1992) derived a relationship showing that the total
simple way to study the behavior of the bitumen film under work of fracture ðWT Þ of the interface between two
tensile load in different conditions and with different types of viscoelastic materials is related to the bond energy WB.
pull-off test machines.
_ kÞ
WT ¼ WB ½1 þ f ðaT ; a; (6)
Masad et al. (2010) investigated if there is any relationship
between the ideal work of fracture calculated using SFE and where aT is the time-temperature shift factor for the bulk
the practical work of fracture measuring by the pull-off test viscoelastic material, a_ is crack growth velocity, and k is a
618
Table 4 e Site test methods used to measure the bond strength of the tack coat between layers after (Mohammad, 2012).
Name of Significance and use Procedure Lab or on site Reference
apparatus
Switzerland pull- Tension strength values are measured to evaluate the A tensile load is applied to asphalt Laboratory Raab and Partl (2004)

off test interlayer shear performance between different asphalt concrete samples composed of two
concrete layers. Shear performance is used to evaluate the layers at a constant rate of
quality of the tack coat and in comparison of various tack deformation.
coat materials.
Traction test Tensile strength of the tack coat interlayer is measured to A tensile strength is applied at a Laboratory or on site Mohammad (2012)
evaluate the bonding property of the tack coat. The bonding constant rate of 54 lbs to a cylindrical
property is used to determine the appropriateness of the sample until failure.
material for use as a tack coat.
The Atracker™ Tensile strength of the tack coat is measured to evaluate its A pull force is applied to detach tack- Laboratory or on site Mohammad et al. (2009)
test bonding property. The bonding property is used to coated plates or to detach the contact
determine the appropriateness of the material for use as a plate and tack-coated pavement.
tack coat.
UTEP simple Tensile strength of the tack coat is measured to evaluate its A tensile force is applied directly to Laboratory or on site Mohammad (2012)
pull-off device bonding property. The bonding property is used to pull off the contact plate from the tack-
(UPOD) determine the appropriateness of the material for use as a coated surface.
tack coat.
Louisiana tack Tensile strength of the tack coat is measured to evaluate its A pull force is applied to detach tack- Laboratory or on site Mohammad et al. (2009)
coat quality bonding property. The bonding property is used to coated plates or to detach the contact
tester (LTCQT) determine the appropriateness of the material for use as a plate and tack-coated pavement.
tack coat.
5.2.3. Pull-off test method and performance tests for

compacted mixtures
To find a strong correlation between the pull-off test and
mixture test is quite difficult, because of the variation in the
parameters. In the pull-off test, the bitumen or mastic can be
used with a substrate like aggregate, aluminum, and stainless
steel, while in the mixture test, the materials are bitumen,
filler, and aggregate with variation in size that can produce
variation in the proportion of air voids. The test temperature
also has an effect on the result. The procedure for any test
may affect the correlation due to the applied compression
load, tensile in static or dynamic form.
Based on the observation of most of the studies that
cohesion failure is much greater than adhesion failure
(Bikerman, 1960), there is a need to investigate both the
adhesion and cohesion properties and then to figure out
the correlation between them and correlate them with
Fig. 6 e Relationship between pull-off strength and tack the mixture test. In a study conducted in 2003 by
factor in dry conditions (Kanitpong, 2005). Kanitpong and Bahia (2003), a modified pull-off test
(PATTI) was used according to ASTM D4541 to measure
factor that is a function of the micromechanical properties of adhesion properties and the DSR was used to measure
the interface, the mechanical properties of the viscoelastic thin film tackiness by means of the tack test system,
material, and specimen geometry. which represents the cohesion properties for bitumen.
The presence of aT and a0 represents the influence of The AASHTO T283 test method was used to assess the
temperature and loading rate respectively. Based on this ITS of the mixture in dry and wet conditions. In dry
model, a regression model was developed by Howson between conditions, the results correlated very well between the
bond energy and the total work of fracture. This model ITS and tack factor obtained by means of the TTS result.
demonstrated a strong relationship between bond energy and In wet conditions, a good relationship up to R2 ¼ 0.97 was
total work of fracture when loading rate, time-temperature found between the maximum tensile strength of the
shift, and viscous deformation were taken into account: mixture and a combined function of the tack factor and
pull-off strength ratio. Fig. 7 illustrates the relationship
WB
¼ A1 þ A2 aT þ A3 a0 þ A4 K (7) between them. Eq. (8) was used to develop the correlation
WT
between previous tests.
where A1 ; A2 ; A3 ; and A4 are regression constants, aT is the
shift factor, a0 is the loading rate, and K is the frequency- Tensile strength (wet) ¼ 1717 e 0.62Tack e 24.6PATTI (8)
dependent loss modulus at low frequencies.
The regression model demonstrated a good relationship In addition to the AASHTO T283, permanent deformation
between bond energy and total work of fracture when loading using the uniaxial compression test and wheel tracking test
rate, time-temperature shift, and viscous deformation were using the Hamburg wheel tester (HWT) were also conducted.
taken into account. The results of this paper support the The cohesion and adhesion measurements of the bitumen
theory that bond energy is a very good indicator of pavement were found to be reasonable predictors of mixture perfor-
performance (Howson et al., 2012). mance, although sample size is small in this study (Kanitpong,
Moraes et al. (2017) carried out an investigation to 2005).
determine if the bond strength measurements obtained Copeland (2007) states that there is no direct relationship
through the asphalt bond strength (ABS) test is supported by between the pull-off test results and mixture performance
the cohesive and adhesive bond strength estimated using tests due to variation in test temperature. The mentioned
surface energy measurements. The AASHTO T361-16 tests are the superpave shear tester (SST) for measuring jG*j/
“standard method of test for determining asphalt binder sin d and cumulative permanent shear strain at 50 C, the
bond strength by means of the asphalt bond strength (ABS) French pavement rut tester for measuring rut depths at
test” was used to evaluate the strength of asphalt-aggregate 70 C, and the Hamburg wheel-tracking device (HWTD) for
bond while the sessile drop method was used to determine measuring creep at 58 C. In another study conducted by
the contact angle of the binders. Two unmodified binders, Kim et al. (2012) and Omar et al. (2018), the results between
seven modified binders and three types of aggregate were the local-scale test (pull-off test) results and the global-scale
investigated. The results showed that higher work of test using AASHTO T283 exhibited a close correlation up to
cohesion results in higher pull-off strength only in wet R2 ¼ 0.75 in dry conditions, while the wet conditioning
condition. However, a fair correlation was observed between method for the AASHTO T283 was not identical to the
the bonding strength value with adhesive failure and work conditioning used for the pull-off test. Also, another study
of debonding. It was observed that higher loss of bond was conducted by Mogawer et al. (2011) to investigate
strength translates into higher work of de bonding. moisture susceptibility for WMA, using HWT and pull-off
factor, according to the observation of some researchers

(Copeland, 2007; Fromm, 1974; Jakarni, 2012; Kanitpong and
Bahia, 2003; Masad et al., 2010; Miller et al., 2010; Xie et al.,
2014). In addition, the film thickness plays a role in the
transition phase from adhesive to cohesive (Jakarni, 2012;
Marek and Herrin, 1968; Masad et al., 2010). The type of
bitumen, additive, the effect of ageing, and aggregate type
(porosity and surface composition) influence the failure mode
as well. The effect of strain rate on the failure mode can be
seen clearly in Fig. 8 (Hammoum et al., 2009).
The failure in a bitumen-aggregate system due to the pres-
ence of water can be explained, as presented previously, in the
theories of adhesion and moisture damage mechanisms sec-
tions. In a study conducted by Cho and Kim (2010), the process of
water infiltration in a bitumen-aggregate system is described: “if
wet conditions occur at the interface, however, then moisture
effects will inhibit the stabilization because the hydro-
chemical effect of water tends to force the interfacial structure
to be degraded with time. The unstable situation can result
Fig. 7 e Relationship between adhesion and cohesion of
from the interaction between aggregate mineralogy, water,
bitumen and ITS of mixtures in wet conditions (Kanitpong
and bitumen. As the hydro-chemical effect of water is related
and Bahia, 2003).
to the solubility of alkali and earth alkaline metals or carboxyl
acid of bitumen, the hydrogen bonding of water, which is
test, and no correlation was found between the bitumen bond related to the hydro-chemical effect, involves reactions
strength (BBS) and the HWTD in wet conditioning. between any molecules and all the reactions that exist
between the metals, water, and the carboxyl acid. The activity
5.3. Mode and mechanism of failure under pull-off load of these reactions is related to pH level of the solution, which
includes bitumen, aggregate, and water. According to the
For all pull-off test methods, the mode of failure is different due ionization of the solution, the solubility of the solution is also
to several factors, regardless of the type of method used. In changed. Therefore, if the solubility is weak, the water will no
general, there are two modes of failure. The first is adhesive longer dissolve hydrophilic material. When bitumen and
failure, which is found as a result of separation between the aggregate within the adhesion region are soluble in a water
bitumen and aggregate surface. The second is cohesive failure, solution, the mineral structure of the aggregate substrate is
which refers to failure within the bitumen itself. Generally, it is easily collapsed and ionized, and thus the adhesive structure
well known that if the total separation between bitumen and of the bitumen film on the aggregate can be broken and
the aggregate surface is more than 50%, the failure will relate to ionized. This mechanism of the bitumen-aggregate structural
adhesive failure. The factor that leads to the occurrence of failure in water relies on the pH level and solubility of the
adhesive failure is various, but water has been found to be a key solution conforming to the chemical dissolution”.
Fig. 8 e Mode of failure with various strain rates (Hammoum et al., 2009).
Failure in dry conditions is totally different than in wet software Image J. It was used to calculate accurately the gray
conditions. Three different modes of failure were observed by intensity of the surface. In Fig. 9, the gray level is higher at
Majidzadeh and Herrin (1965) and Marek and Herrin (1968). lower film thicknesses, indicating a more adhesive-type
The first is brittle fracture, characterized by a complete and failure in dry conditions.
instantaneous separation between two samples sandwiched The failure phenomenon was investigated by Poulikakos
by bitumen and can occur when the film thickness is very et al. (2013). In their study, the time evolutions of failure and
thin and at low temperature. The second is flow failure, film disintegration and separation phenomena were studied.
which can be described as the formation of a single thread Four stages, shown in Fig. 10, were observed and identified
and necking of the bitumen; this is clear with thicker film as: initial, necking, filamentation with void nucleation, and
thickness. The last is intermediate failure. In this case, separation. During the test, the shear stresses deform the
multiple threads are formed. They observed the formation of bitumen structure into domains that are elongated in flow
cavitation, especially in intermediate failure. A hypothesis of direction. They state that flow in bitumen is dominated by
the reasons for the formation of cavitation is explained in viscous effects, although capillary forces play a role at later
detail in their paper. Gent and Lindley (1959) report that stages of the experiment with negligible inertia and
when the aspect ratio increases, the size of cavitation will gravitational effects. The effect of capillarity as a driving
decrease and the number of cavitations increases. mechanism of the flow of bitumen at later stages of the test
A study by Harvey and Cebon (2003) was done to leading to the successive formation and enlargement of
understand the failure mechanisms in viscoelastic films voids was observed. It was shown that capillary pressure
using double cantilever beam joints (DCBs) and butt joints. differences drive the bitumen between the voids towards the
In their study, three general regimes of behavior were center and up and down, causing depletion of the bitumen
observed in viscoelastic films: ductile, brittle, and transition. in the center and enlargement of the holes. This
Within the ductile region, the failure mechanisms are phenomenon has been observed in most previous studies.
voiding. Voids nucleate well before maximum stress is Hammoum et al. (2009) state that an initial crack is initiated
achieved in thin film specimens, and peak stress by the cavitation phenomenon; if a cavitation bubble opens
corresponds to the onset of void coalescence or inward flow. up, it will open in the direction of maximum tension. A
They state that a comparison between the brittle fracture sudden drop in the tension force can be interpreted by fast
stress and the peak stress associated with voiding can be crack propagation within the sample. The first evidence of a
used to deduce a critical flaw size for brittle fracture. A change in the material, i.e., necking, occurs well after the
critical aspect ratio (the ligament radius/thickness of the peak stress. In other words, there is a marked time shift
sample) marks the boundary between voiding and thick film between the force measurement and the visual observation
flow. The joint stresses are very sensitive to the aspect ratio regarding structural integrity. Necking and voiding occur
for adhesives with a high Poisson's ratio. However, Holownia well into the plastic region. It was observed that water
(1972) states that the lower value of Poisson's ratiocauses the conditioning accelerates necking of the bitumen and
stress field near the center of the joint to be less parabolic decreases the time to fracture (Poulikakos et al., 2013).
and more uniform. The stress distribution within the sample The result of Poulikakos et al. (2013) was similar to the
is significantly affected by the value of Poisson's ratio and result of a study done by Derks et al. (2008), which explains
the shape of the sample. The study was continued by the deformation of the structure under force into domains
Harvey and Cebon (2005) to investigate the adhesive that are elongated in flow direction.
properties of the bitumen. The result of their studies showed In 2014, work conducted by Xie et al. (2014) found that the
that under brittle fracture, peak stress is rate independent, temperature dominates the mode of failure, as shown in
but was rate dependent when ductile failure occurred. On Fig. 11. The glass transition temperature may control the
the other hand, the strain at failure was rate independent change in the properties of thermoplastic polymers from
for both ductile and brittle fracture (Harvey and Cebon, 2003, ductile to brittle, so below the glass transition temperature,
2005). or very high strain rates as well, brittle fracture is common
A study done by McKinley (2005) found that the transient (Knauss, 1989). However, bitumen has a short molecular
extensional viscosity of the fluid plays an important role in structure like some polymers and may behave in a similar
controlling the dynamics of break-up. The process of break- way. Xie et al. (2014) state that it is unwise to conduct pull-
up is driven by the action of capillarity, which seeks to off tests at ambient temperature (equal to or higher than
minimize the interfacial energy of the free surface of a fluid 15 C), because the pull-off strength is much more likely to
thread by formation of spherical droplets. This dynamical measure the tensile strength of bitumen instead of the bond
process can be very rapid, depending on the composition of strength on the interface. A strong relationship was
the fluid, and viscous, elastic, and inertial stresses may all discovered between the bitumen retained area and achieved
be important in resisting the action of capillarity. McKinley strain at the fracture moment. This result provides the
observed that as the width of fluid in the necking region possibility to establish a new indication of a fracture
decreases, the capillary pressure inside the fluid increases criterion with the level of strain achieved.
and at a critical time will exceed the yield stress. Chen et al. (2020) used double-edge notched tension test
Most failure evaluation is visually decided. However, there and binder fracture energy (BFE) test to evaluate binder
is a need to use special techniques that can help to make the fracture performance for unmodified and modified binders.
evaluation more precise. In work done by Masad et al. (2010), The results of both tests showed that the low fracture
the evaluation was done by using the image analysis resistance of a modified binder was probably caused by the
Fig. 9 e Gray level intensities of substrate surface at different bitumen film thicknesses (Masad et al., 2010).
Fig. 10 e Stages of failure (Poulikakos et al., 2013).
low fracture elongation which is due to its high stiffness, high 2. It is very important to understand how the bond be-
strength and high brittleness. tween bitumen and the aggregate surface occurs. The
five theories that explain adhesion phenomena are:
6. Conclusions theory of mechanical interlocking, theory of weak
boundary layers, theory of electrostatic, theory of
Moisture damage has been an important topic for flexible chemical bonding, and theory of thermodynamics.
pavement researchers since this problem was discovered. 3. Mechanisms of stripping are different due to the
Lots of work has been done to investigate the factors that lead different variables.
to moisture damage occurrence, the mechanism of moisture 4. Factors that influence the asphalt mixture in resist-
damage, and to develop tests that evaluate the degree of ing moisture damage vary due to the variation in the
moisture damage, whether these tests are conducted on loose materials' properties, mixture properties, construc-
mixtures or compacted mixtures. tion conditions, and field factors after construction.
In this paper, a review was conducted on the following The chemical, physical, thermodynamic, and elec-
points. trostatic properties of bitumen and aggregate are
different from one type to another, and their
1. General information including: a description of mois- behavior varies in dry and wet conditions, leading to
ture damage forms, which are adhesion loss and cohe- confusion in understanding how to resist moisture
sion loss, and the definition of moisture damage. damage.
work that have been done in detecting moisture pres-

ence inside the mixture, there is a need for deeper re-
searches and improvements to be done to validate and
verify the feasibility of all its application in pavement
structures, especially in evaluating moisture damage in
the pavement structure.
10. The pull-off test method has been shown to be more
promising for evaluating the adhesion properties of
bitumen and aggregate. It can be used in any conditions.
The procedure is simple, practical, and easy to perform.
Many studies confirm its repeatability and the ability to
distinguish between different bitumen with a variation
in conditions.
11. Studying the mode of failure of pull-off test in dry con-
ditioning is necessary to find a way to improve the
bonding strength of the bitumen, which may lead to
Fig. 11 e The relationship between the percent of the enhance the moisture resistance of the asphalt mixtures.
retained area and strain (Xie et al., 2014). 12. It is concluded that using more than one test is very
important. Correlation between test methods conduct-
ed on loose and compacted mixtures should be studied
5. Current test methods used to evaluate the water sus- extensively.
ceptibility of asphalt mixtures range from visual eval-
uation to quantitative parameters, which vary from one
test to another. Although no specified test method has Conflict of interest
been selected as the best in evaluating moisture dam-
age, from literature it is clear that the modified Lottman The authors do not have any conflict of interest with other
test (AASHTO T283) method is more used by researchers entities or researchers.
and has a good correlation with most other tests
whether conducted on loose or compacted mixtures.
Acknowledgments
6. In the absence of test equipment in some laboratories,
the boiling water test can be used with merit. Although
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Universiti
boiling water test results cannot be evaluated numeri-
Kebangsaan Malaysia for the financial support for this work
cally, this test can evaluate the samples that have
(GUP-2018-094).
different properties and distinguish visually between
bitumen samples with and without additives and
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Dr. Hend Ali Omar research interests are in
methods to predict moisture sensitivity of hot-mix asphalt
pavement engineering, pavement materials
pavements. In: The Moisture Sensitivity of Asphalt
and pavement management system.
Pavements-A National Seminar, San Diego, 2003.
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Dr. Halil Ceylan, a professor, has extensive

Dr. Muhammad Mubaraki, an associate experience in pavement field investigation
professor, research interests lie in pavement and forensic testing, pavement performance
engineering, pavement management sys- evaluation and modeling, mechanistic-
tems, asset management, mathematical and based pavement analysis and design con-
statistical modelling of infrastructures, cepts, nondestructive testing and health
quality in education, and higher education monitoring of transportation infrastructure
administration. systems, smart infrastructure/engineering
materials, and engineering application of intelligent data mining
and computational intelligence techniques.

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j o u r n a l o f t r a f fi c a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g ( e n g l i s h e d i t i o n ) 2 0 2 0 ; 7 ( 5 ) : 6 0 0 e6 2 8

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Effects of moisture damage on asphalt mixtures

article info abstract

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ60 389216447; fax: þ60 389118344.

© 2020 Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on

the substrate surface, the interatomic and intermolecular

where 1, 2 and 3 represent bitumen, aggregate and water 2.2.2. Displacement

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (5): 600e628

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (5): 600e628

thermistors sensors were employed to measure the temper-

n and Such (2004)

Birgisson et al. (2004)

Gubler et al. (2004)

Collop et al. (2004)

Indirect tensile test (ITT)

Special features should be exist in any sensor that used in

Fatigue test good characteristics to be able to withstand harsh condition

Saturation using partial vacuum

Saturation using partial vacuum

self-powered, continuous, autonomous sensing and wireless

Zhou and Scullion (2007) have used three different types of

bituminous pavement at some running speeds in the site. By

using laboratory test, a theoretical correlation was derived

pressure. Three sensors were designed and subjected to

infiltration rate on approximate linear curve with increasing

5. Introduction to pull-off test methods

The pull-off strength of a material is its ability to withstand an

applied tension stress without failure. The pull-off test pro-

tions and freeze-thaw cycles. The effect of the moisture con-

dition, ageing of bitumen and using additives added to

bitumen with variation in modification process, have also

been evaluated with this method (Omar et al., 2015, 2016a,

bonding force, such as the Brown adhesive test, the cemen-

strength as well, such as the rate of deformation, test

5.1. Pull-off test method

5.1.1. Laboratory test methods

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (5): 600e628

5.2.3. Pull-off test method and performance tests for

factor, according to the observation of some researchers

Fig. 10 e Stages of failure (Poulikakos et al., 2013).

work that have been done in detecting moisture pres-

Dr. Halil Ceylan, a professor, has extensive

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