TRANSPORT PROCESSES

UNIT OPERATIONS (SEPARATION PROCESSES)

Separation processes are deals mainly with the change and transfer of
energy and materials by physical and physical – chemical means.
1. Evaporation - the removal of a volatile solvent (water) by evaporation,
from a non – volatile solute such as salt (or any other material in the
solution).
2. Drying - the volatile liquids (water) are removed by passing dry air to
the solid materials.
3. Distillation – the components of a liquid mixture are separated by
boiling because of their differences in vapor pressure.
4. Absorption - the solute in carried by the gas stream is removed by a
liquid solvent.
UNIT OPERATIONS (SEPARATION PROCESSES)
5. Membrane Separation – the solute from a fluid is separated by the diffusion of
this solute through a semi – permeable membrane to another fluid
6. Liquid – liquid Extraction – the solute in a liquid solution is removed by
contacting the with another solvent
7. Adsorption – components of a gas or a liquid is adsorbed by a solid adsorbent
8. Ion Exchange – ions in a solution are removed by an ion – exchange solid
9. Leaching – solute contained in a solid is removed by a liquid that dissolves the
solute.
10.Crystallization – the solute is removed by precipitating the solute from the
solution
11.Mechanical – physical separation – separation of liquids, solids, and gases by
means of filtration, settling, centrifugation and size reduction
Fundamentals of Transport Processes
1. Momentum Transfer
- concerned with the transfer of
momentum which occurs in
moving media, such as in the
separation processes of fluid
flow, sedimentation, mixing and
filtration.
Fundamentals of Transport Processes
2. Heat Transfer concerned with the
transfer of heat from one place to
another, it occurs in the separation
processes of drying, evaporation,
distillation and others.
Fundamentals of Transport Processes
3. Mass Transfer
- mass is being transferred from
one phase to another distinct
phase; the basic mechanism is
the same whether the phases are
solid, liquid or gas. This includes
distillation, absorption, liquid –
liquid extraction, membrane
separation, adsorption,
crystallization and leaching.
MOMETUM TRANSFER
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is the science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at
rest or in motion, and the
interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries. There
is a wide variety of fluid flow
problems encountered in practice,
and it is usually convenient to
classify them on the basis of some
common characteristics to make it
feasible to study them in groups.
FLUIDS
Fluids are substances that
deforms continuously under the
influence of a shear stress, no
matter how small.

No – slip condition a fluid in direct

contact with a solid “sticks” to the
surface due to viscous effects, and
there is no slip.
FLUIDS
The flow region adjacent to the wall
in which the viscous effects (and
thus the velocity gradients) are
significant is called the boundary
layer.
Another consequence of the no-slip
condition is the surface drag, which
is the force a fluid exerts on a
surface in the flow direction.
FLUIDS
Flow separation happens when the boundary We emphasize that the
layer can no longer remain attached to the no-slip condition applies
surface. everywhere along the
surface, even
downstream of the
separation point.
FLUIDS
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Intensive Properties Extensive Properties

Intensive properties are those that Extensive properties are those whose
are independent of the mass of a values depend on the size—or
system, such as temperature, extent—of the system. (i.e. mass,
pressure, and density. volume and momentum)
Continuum
• The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and
to assume that the properties vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
• The continuum idealization is implicit in many statements we make, such as “the
density of water in a glass is the same at any point.”
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, SPECIFIC WEIGHT and SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density (ρ) is its mass per unit volume:
𝑚 𝑃 (𝑀𝑀)
ρ= ρ=
𝑉 𝑅𝑇
Specific Volume (ν) is the volume per unit mass:
1
ν=
ρ
Specific Weight (Ƴ) of any substance is the force of
gravity in unit volume:
𝐹
Ƴ=
v
Specific Gravity:
ρ𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
spec. gravity =
ρ𝑟𝑒𝑓
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

• Saturation temperature (Tsat) is the

temperature at which the pure substance
changes phase at a given pressure.
• Saturated pressure (Psat) is the pressure at
which a substance changes phase given the
temperature.
• Vapor pressure (Pv) of a pure substance is
defined as the pressure exerted by its vapor
in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature. Vapor pressure turns out to be
identical to the saturation pressure.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

• Cavitation is the formation of

cavitation bubbles due to a sudden
drop in pressure.
• This phenomenon is a common cause
for drop in performance and even the
erosion, surface pitting, fatigue failure,
and the eventual destruction of the
components or machinery.
• The presence of cavitation in a flow
system can be sensed by its
characteristic tumbling sound.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY ( )
Coefficient of compressibility also known as the bulk modulus of elasticity.
Fluid contracts fluid contracts when more pressure is applied on it and
expands when the pressure acting on it is reduced.

Isothermal compressibility is the inverse of the coefficient of compressibility.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME EXPANSION (β)
Coefficient of volume expansion (volume expansivity) represents the
variation of density of a fluid with temperature at constant pressure.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
COMBINED EFFECT
Then the fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in pressure and
temperature can be expressed approximately as:
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
VISCOSITY

Viscosity is a property that

represents the internal resistance of a
fluid to motion also known as
“fluidity”. It is the ratio of shear stress
and shear rate.
Drag force is the force a flowing fluid
exerts on a body in the flow
direction.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
VISCOSITY (μ)

Absolute viscosity and shear

viscosity are synonymous with
viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of
viscosity to density. (units: m2 /s)
μ
ύ=
ρ
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
A 6 cm diameter sphere is tested in water at 20˚C and a velocity of 3
m/s and has a measured drag of 6 Newton. What will be the velocity
and drag force of a 2 meter diameter weather balloon moving in air at
20˚Cand 1 atm under similar conditions?
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Water at 60˚F plans at 12 fps in a 6 inch pipe. At what velocity must
medium fuel oil at 90˚F (ύ = 3.19x10^-5 ft/s) flow in a 3 inch pipe for
the two flows to be dynamically similar.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
A one – twentieth scale model of the submarine is tested at 200 ft/s in
a wind tunnel using sea level standard air (ρ = 0.00234, μ = 3.78x10^-7
lb/ft - s). What is the prototype speed in sea water at 20˚C (ρ = 2, , μ =
2.23x10^-3) for dynamic similarity? If the model drag is 1 lbf, what is
the prototype drag?
FLUIDS

The flow region adjacent to the wall

in which the viscous effects (and
thus the velocity gradients) are
significant is called the boundary
layer.
FLUIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

A. Viscous versus Inviscid Flow

Flows in which the frictional effects

are significant are called viscous
flows.

The region of flow unaffected by the

presence of the plate is the inviscid
flow region.
FLUIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW

B. Internal versus External Flow

The flow of an unbounded fluid over

a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a
pipe is external flow.

The flow in a pipe or duct is internal

flow if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.
FLUIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW
C. Compressible versus Incompressible
𝑉 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
Ma = =
Incompressibility is an approximation, 𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
and a flow is said to be incompressible
if the density remains nearly constant where c is the speed of sound =
throughout. (generally liquids) 346 m/s in air at room temperature
at sea level
Gases, on the other hand, are highly
compressible. Sonic flow (Ma = 1.0)
Flow speed is often expressed in terms Subsonic flow (Ma < 1.0)
of the dimensionless Mach Supersonic flow (Ma > 1.0)
Number defined as: Hypersonic flow (Ma >> 1.0)
FLUIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW
D. Laminar flow versus Turbulent flow
• The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of fluid is
called laminar. (i.e flow of high -
viscosity fluids - like oils - at low
velocities)
• The highly disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations is
called turbulent. (i.e. low – viscosity
fluids such as air)
• A flow that alternates between being
laminar and turbulent is called
transitional.
FLUIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW
The experiments conducted by Osborn Reynolds resulted in the establishment
of the dimensionless Reynolds number, Re, as the key parameter for the
determination of the flow regime in pipes.

𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝐷𝑣𝜌

Re = =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜇

where D = diameter
v = velocity Laminar flow: Re < 2100
𝜌 = density Transitional flow: 2100 < Re < 4200
𝜇 = viscosity Turbulent flow: Re < 4200
FLUIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW
D. Natural versus Forced flow E. Natural versus Forced flow
• In forced flow, a fluid is forced • The term steady implies no
to flow over a surface or in a change at a point with time.
pipe by external means such as • In fluid mechanics, unsteady is
a pump or a fan. the most general term that
• In natural flows, any fluid applies to any flow that is not
motion is due to natural means steady, but transient is typically
such as the buoyancy effect, used for developing flows.
which manifests itself as the rise • The term uniform implies no
of the warmer (and thus lighter) change with location over a
fluid and the fall of cooler (and specified region.
thus denser).
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
RHEOLOGY

Viscoelastic fluids exhibit both viscous and

elastic properties.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
FLUIDS
RHEOLOGY
Purely
Viscoelastic
viscous

Time – Time -
dependent independent
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
RHEOLOGY

Rheology is the discipline of fluid mechanics

which studies the relationship between fluid
deformation and stress.
Purely viscous fluids are fluids that do not have
solid – like elastic behavior.
• Time - independent fluids the shear stress
depends only on the instantaneous shear
rate.
• Time - dependent fluids depends on the
history of the rate of deformation.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
RHEOLOGY

Viscoelastic fluids exhibit both viscous and

elastic properties.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
SURFACE TENSION

Viscoelastic fluids exhibit both

viscous and elastic properties.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
CAPILLARY EFFECT

Viscoelastic fluids exhibit both

viscous and elastic properties.
MANOMETERS
MANOMETERS
MANOMETERS
MANOMETERS
MANOMETERS
MANOMETERS
MANOMETERS
MANOMETERS
SW: MANOMETERS
HW: MANOMETERS
HW: MANOMETERS
GENERAL TRANSPORT EQUATION
In order to transport a property we need a driving force to overcome the
resistance.

Mathematically expressed as,

whereψz- flux of the property, amount of property transferred/m2 • 𝑠

δ – diffusivity (proportionality constant), m2 /𝑠
dΓ – concentration of property, amount of property /m3
dz – distance in the direction of flow, m
GENERAL TRANSPORT EQUATION

For a steady state flow, the flux ψz is constant.

GENERAL TRANSPORT EQUATION
For a steady state flow, the flux ψz is constant. Thus,
GENERAL TRANSPORT EQUATION
GENERAL TRANSPORT EQUATION
A property is being transported through a fluid at a steady state through a cross
sectional area. At point 1 the concentration Γ is 2.78x10−2 amount of property per
cubic meter and 1.50x10−2 at point 2 at a distance if 2.0 m away, the diffusivity (δ)
depends on concentration Γas follows: δ = A + BΓ = 0.150 + 1.65Γ. Derive the
integrated equation for the flux in terms if Γ1 and Γ2. The calculate the flux.
MOMENTUM TRANSPORT EQUATION
The momentum transport equation is similar to Newton’s Law of viscosity:
𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜇=
𝛾

−𝜇 𝑑𝑣
𝜏𝑦𝑧 =
𝑑𝑦
MOMENTUM TRANSPORT EQUATION
MOMENTUM TRANSPORT EQUATION
The distance between the two parallel plates is 0.00914 m, and the lower
plate is pulled at a relative velocity of 0.366 m/s greater than the top plate.
The fluid is soybean oil with a viscosity of 410−2 Pa – s at 303 K. (a)Calculate
the shear stress and shear rate using lbf,ft and s units. (b) Repeat using SI
units. (c) If glycerol at 293 K having a viscosity of 1.069 kg/m – sis used
instead of soybean oil, what relative velocity in m/s is needed using the same
distance between plates so that the same shear stress is obtained as in part
(a)? Also, what is the new shear rate?
VELOCITY PROFILE

Average Velocity Profile to use In Over All Mass Balance:

1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ඵ 𝑣 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
VELOCITY PROFILE
VELOCITY PROFILE
HEAT TRANSFER
CONDUCTION
CONVECTION
RADIATION
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is the means by
which energy moves from hotter
object to a colder object.

1. Conduction is the process

where by heat is transferred
directly through a material. In
gases, hotter molecules, which
have a greater energy and
motion, impart to the other
molecules at a lower energy
level.
CONDUCTION: FOURIER’S LAW
(Eq 5 -1 HB)

(Eq 5 -2 HB)
• Thermal conductors are materials that
conduct heat such as metals.
• Thermal insulators are materials that where q – heat transfer rate
conduct heat poorly such as wood, A – is the cross – sectional
area
glass and plastic.
k – thermal conductivity
∆T – temperature difference
two ends
CONDUCTION: Single Wall
(Eq 5 -3 HB)
CONDUCTION: Single Wall
A furnace wall is constructed of firebricks 6 inches in thickness. The temperature of
the inside wall is 1300˚F and the temperature of the outside wall is 175˚F. If the mean
BTU
thermal conductivity under this conditions is 0.17 . What is the rate of heat
hr −ft−℉
loss through 10 ft 2 of wall surface?
CONDUCTION: Composite Wall
CONDUCTION: Composite Wall in
Series
CONDUCTION: Composite Wall in
Series
A composite wall consist of an outer layer and an inner layer both 5 inch thick. The
BTU
thermal conductivity of the outer layer is 1.0 while that of the inner layer is
hr −ft −℉
BTU
0.1 . The temperature of the outer layer is 500℉ while that of the inner layer
hr −ft−℉
BTU
is 1500℉. Find the heat loss in .
hr − ft2
CONDUCTION: Composite Wall in
Parallel
CONVECTION: Newton’s Law of Cooling

Convection is the process in which heat is carried from a place to

another place by the bulk movement of a fluid (gas or liquid).
CONVECTION:
𝑇1 −𝑇2
q= 1
ℎ𝐴

where q is the rate of heat - transfer (W)

A is the area in (m2 )
𝑻𝟏 s the temperature of the solid surface (K)
𝑻𝟐 iis the ave. or bulk temperature of the fluid (K)
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 – K)
CONVECTION: Single Wall
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (U)
CONVECTION: Single Wall
The inner wall of a furnace is at a temperature of 700℃. The composite wall is
made of two substances, 10 cm and 20 cm thick with thermal conductivities of
W
0.05 and 0.1 respectively. The ambient air is at 30℃ and the heat transfer
m −K
W
coefficient between the outer surface of the wall and air is 20 2 . Calculate
m −K
W
the rate of heat loss from the outer surface in 2 .
m
CONVECTION: Hollow Cylinders

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (U)

CONVECTION: Hollow Cylinder
CONVECTION: Hollow Cylinder
SEATWORK
CONDUCTION with HEAT GENERATION
• HEAT GENERATION IN PLANE WALL • TOTAL HEAT LOSS

Where qT is the total heat loss from

• HEAT GENERATION IN CYLINDER the two surfaces equal to the total
heat generated
T0 is the temperature at center
TW is the temperature at the
CONDUCTION with HEAT GENERATION
HEAT GENERATION IN CYLINDER
CONDUCTION with HEAT GENERATION
HEAT GENERATION IN CYLINDER

A current of 250 A is passing through stainless wire having a diameter of 5.08 mm.
The wire is 2.44 m long and has a resistance of 0.0843 ohms. The outer surface is
held costant at 427.6 K. The thermal conductivity is 22.5 W/m – K. Calculate the
center line temperature at steady state.
CONVECTION: FORCED
In forced convection, a fluid is forced by external forces such as fans.
SCHEDULE:
MAY 6 – VELOCITY PROFILE & CONDUCTION
MAY 8 – CONVECTION, COMBINED CONDUCTION and CONVECTION,
MAY 10 - FREE and FORCED CONVECTION
CHANGE OF PHASE CCONVECTION: BOILING AND
CONDENSATION
MAY 13 – RADIATION
MAY 15 – DIFFUSION
MAY 22 – FINALS