- Religion and Modernity, Islam and Modernity, Shariah, History of Logic, Intellectual History, Religion and Politics, and 11 moreQur'anic Studies, Law and Society, Legal History, Legal Theory, Orientalism, Islamic Law, Methodologies of jurisprudence usul al-fiqh (أصول الفقه), Islamic law and jurisprudence, Sharia, Colonialism, and Islamic Philosophyedit
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A TRANSLATION OF TWELVE ARTICLES, PUBLISHED BETWEEN 1984 AND 1993.
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Bu çeviri TÜBİTAK Kariyer Geliştirme Programı (3501) kapsamında yürüttüğüm 119K818 numaralı proje çalışmalarından üretilmiştir. Destekleri için TÜBİTAK'a teşekkür ederim. ** * This translation was derived from the project studies numbered... more
Bu çeviri TÜBİTAK Kariyer Geliştirme Programı (3501) kapsamında yürüttüğüm 119K818 numaralı proje çalışmalarından üretilmiştir. Destekleri için TÜBİTAK'a teşekkür ederim. ** * This translation was derived from the project studies numbered 119K818 that I carried out within the scope of TÜBİTAK Career Development Program (3501). I would like to thank TÜBİTAK for their support.
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Oz Islam ilim dunyasi ile bati ahlâk ve hukuk felsefesindeki modernist faraziyeleri yeniden degerlendirdigimde, Kur’an’in Hz Muhammed’in vahiy almaya basladigi ilk Mekke doneminden itibaren Islâm hukukunun bir kaynagi oldugu sonucuna... more
Oz Islam ilim dunyasi ile bati ahlâk ve hukuk felsefesindeki modernist faraziyeleri yeniden degerlendirdigimde, Kur’an’in Hz Muhammed’in vahiy almaya basladigi ilk Mekke doneminden itibaren Islâm hukukunun bir kaynagi oldugu sonucuna vardim. Kur’an’in bizzat kendi icinden kapsamli delillerle desteklenen bu sonuc, Islâm hukukunun ortaya cikisi ile ilgili standart soylemde bir tadile gitmeyi zorunlu kilmaktadir. Tarihciler islerini yaparken, kendi faraziyelerinin -tabii eger bu faraziyelerin farkindalarsa- urettikleri tarihi hikayeleri sekillendirmede ne kadar hayati bir rol oynadigini genellikle goremezler. Bazilari, boyle bir farkindaligin buyuk onemini hepten gozden kacirip, sozde calistiklari tarihi konudan ziyade kendi hayal guclerinin bir kurgusunu yansitan tarihler insa etmeye devam ederler. Şeriat olarak bilinen –ki bu daha dogrudur-1 Islam hukukunun ilk tesekkulunde Kur’an’in rolu meselesi, bu “kendinin farkinda olma” halinden yoksunluk probleminin, ser‘i hukukun tesekkul don...
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Research Interests: Islamic Law, Genocide Studies, Islamic Contemporary Studies, Enlightenment, Modernity, and 12 moreEnvironmental Sustainability, Environmental ethics (Philosophy) (Philosophy), Orientalism in art, Postcolonial theory (Cultural Theory), European Enlightenment, Sharia, Orientalism, Shariah, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Modernity/coloniality/decoloniality, Orientalismo, and Religius and Islamic Studies
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In an article published in 1993, I argued that Muḥammad Ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (d. 204/820) was not, as commonly thought, the architect of uṣūl al-fiqh and that this discipline emerged only after the main battles over what became the... more
In an article published in 1993, I argued that Muḥammad Ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (d. 204/820) was not, as commonly thought, the architect of uṣūl al-fiqh and that this discipline emerged only after the main battles over what became the Sunnite sources of the law were won. I had dated the emergence of writings on uṣūl al-fiqh to the last part of the third/ninth century and the first half of the fourth/tenth, pointing to Ibn Surayj (d. 306/918) and his students as amongst the earliest exponents of this type of literature. The article contributed to the rise of a considerable controversy in the field, in which a number of critics reasserted earlier origins of the discipline. In this writing, I reply to some of these critics, while confirming the main conclusions of that article and expanding and refining its arguments. In light of new evidence, empirical and interpretive, I maintain that uṣūl al-fiqh proper arose slightly later than my initial estimate. I also provide an analytical descrip...
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Research Interests: Genocide Studies, Colonialism, Post-Colonialism, Modernity, Islamic Studies, and 10 moreIslam, Edward Said, Orientalism, Genocide, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, René Guénon, Culture and Modernity, Colonial and Post-Colonial Forms of Knowledge, Colonial Knowledge, and Modernity/coloniality/decoloniality
Research Interests: Islamic Law, Islamic Philosophy, Kalam (Islamic Theology), Islamic Studies, Islamic History, and 10 moreIslamic Political Thought, Islamic History and Muslim Civilization, Islamic Law and Legal Theory, Ijtihad, Fatwa and Islamic Shariah Law, Kelam, İslam Tarihi, İslam Hukuku, İslamic Law/İslam Hukuku/Fıkıh/فقه, and Islamic law and jurisprudence
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Research Interests: Critical Theory, Postcolonial Studies, Sociology of Knowledge, Genocide Studies, Colonialism, and 9 morePost-Colonialism, Islamic Studies, Edward Said, Orientalism, Genocide, Oriental Studies, Latin American cultural and literary theory. Postcolonial literary theory. Urban Studies. Memory and Modernity in Latinamerica. Transmodernity. Modernity and colonial world, the geopolitics of knowledge, border thinking. Film Cultural Studies, René Guénon, and Modernity/coloniality/decoloniality
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Research Interests: Islamic Law, Ethics, Postcolonial Studies, Enlightenment, Intellectual History of Enlightenment, and 15 moreIslamic Studies, Postcolonial Theory, Political Theology, Islam, Moral Philosophy, Ethics and Politics, Constitutional Theory, Carl Schmitt, Sharia, Constitutionalism, Political Islam, Islamic Movements and Political Islam, Shariah, Modern State, and Shariah and Law
Research Interests: Islamic Law, Ethics, Islamic Philosophy, Modernity, Islamic Studies, and 12 moreSufism, Islamic Ethics, Contemporary Sufism, Rationalism, Moral Philosophy, Religion and Modernity, Islamic Thought & Philosophy, Islam and Modernity, Rationality, Histories and theories of modernity, Sufisme, and Wael B. Hallaq
Reforming Modernity is a sweeping intellectual history and philosophical reflection built around the work of the Morocco-based philosopher Abdurrahman Taha, one of the most significant philosophers in the Islamic world since the colonial... more
Reforming Modernity is a sweeping intellectual history and philosophical reflection built around the work of the Morocco-based philosopher Abdurrahman Taha, one of the most significant philosophers in the Islamic world since the colonial era. Wael B. Hallaq contends that Taha is at the forefront of forging a new, non-Western-centric philosophical tradition. He explores how Taha’s philosophical project sheds light on recent intellectual currents in the Islamic world and puts forth a formidable critique of Western and Islamic modernities.
Hallaq argues that Taha’s project departs from―but leaves behind―the epistemological grounds in which most modern Muslim intellectuals have anchored their programs. Taha systematically rejects the modes of thought that have dominated the Muslim intellectual scene since the beginning of the twentieth century―nationalism, Marxism, secularism, political Islamism, and liberalism. Instead, he provides alternative ways of thinking, forcefully and virtuosically developing an ethical system with a view toward reforming existing modernities. Hallaq analyzes the ethical thread that runs throughout Taha’s oeuvre, illuminating how Taha weaves it into a discursive engagement with the central questions that plague modernity in both the West and the Muslim world. The first introduction to Taha’s ethical philosophy for Western audiences, Reforming Modernity presents his complex thought in an accessible way while engaging with it critically. Hallaq’s conversation with Taha’s work both proffers a cogent critique of modernity and points toward answers for its endemic and seemingly insoluble problems.
Hallaq argues that Taha’s project departs from―but leaves behind―the epistemological grounds in which most modern Muslim intellectuals have anchored their programs. Taha systematically rejects the modes of thought that have dominated the Muslim intellectual scene since the beginning of the twentieth century―nationalism, Marxism, secularism, political Islamism, and liberalism. Instead, he provides alternative ways of thinking, forcefully and virtuosically developing an ethical system with a view toward reforming existing modernities. Hallaq analyzes the ethical thread that runs throughout Taha’s oeuvre, illuminating how Taha weaves it into a discursive engagement with the central questions that plague modernity in both the West and the Muslim world. The first introduction to Taha’s ethical philosophy for Western audiences, Reforming Modernity presents his complex thought in an accessible way while engaging with it critically. Hallaq’s conversation with Taha’s work both proffers a cogent critique of modernity and points toward answers for its endemic and seemingly insoluble problems.
Research Interests: Critical Theory, Philosophy, Ethics, Islamic Philosophy, Enlightenment, and 15 moreModernity, Ethical Theory, Islamic Studies, Sufism, Islamic Ethics, Immanuel Kant, Contemporary Sufism, Moral Philosophy, Islamic Reformism, Rationality, Modern Islamic Thought, Morality, Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Nahda (Renaissance Arabe Du XIXe Siècle), and Muhammad Abid Al-Jabiri
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Research Interests: Critical Theory, Engineering, History, Islamic Law, Social Sciences, and 11 moreCorporate Social Responsibility, Political Science, Enlightenment, Islamic Education, Intellectual History of Enlightenment, Islamic Studies, Michel Foucault, Multinational Corporations, Edward Said, Orientalism, and Islamic law and jurisprudence
Research Interests: Ottoman History, Israel Studies, Israel/Palestine, Colonialism, Post-Colonialism, and 15 moreIslamic Studies, French colonialism, Islam, Multinational Corporations, Edward Said, History of Colonial India, Zionism, Settler Colonial Studies, Israel and Zionism, Orientalism, East India Company, René Guénon, Settler colonialism, French colonial Algeria, and Islamic law and jurisprudence
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Research Interests: Islamic Law, Islamic Studies, Islamic History, Islam, Sharia, and 8 moreMethodologies of jurisprudence usul al-fiqh (أصول الفقه), Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Usul al-Fiqh), Maqasid al-Sharia (Purposes of Islamic Law), Shariah, Usul al Fiqh, Fatwa and Islamic Shariah Law, Shariah and Law, and Islamic law and jurisprudence
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Research Interests: Islamic Law, Constitutional Law, Political Theory, Political Science, Islamic Contemporary Studies, and 16 moreNationalism, Technologies of the Self, State Theory, Islamic Studies, Political Theology, Islamic History, Islam, Islamic Political Thought, Constitutional Theory, Carl Schmitt, Islamic Economics and Finance, Islamism, Constitutionalism, Political Islam, Islamic Movements and Political Islam, and Political Ethics
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Published in: http://erasmusi.org/teknologjite-morale-te-vetes-ne-islam-dhe-perendim/ Paradigma e shtetit modern dhe e kapacitetit të tij të qenësishëm për të prodhuar subjekte nuk mund të gjejë asnjë terren të përbashkët me paradigmën e... more
Published in: http://erasmusi.org/teknologjite-morale-te-vetes-ne-islam-dhe-perendim/ Paradigma e shtetit modern dhe e kapacitetit të tij të qenësishëm për të prodhuar subjekte nuk mund të gjejë asnjë terren të përbashkët me paradigmën e qeverisjes islame. Këto të dyja janë botë mjaft të largëta nga njëra tjetrëa. Një dimension qendror krahasimor këtu është fenomeni kontrollues i përvojës historike. Përvoja evropiane që gjeneroi shtetin modern është thjesht dhe vetëm aq: Evropiane. Qeverisja islame ka qenë sheshazi produkt i Botës Islame, i përvojave totale historike të kulturës, vlerave dhe weltanschauung-ëve islamë, sado të larmishme mund të kenë qenë këto përvoja në gjirin e traditës. Konstitutive në këtë diferencë është mungesa në paradigmën islame të një monarku apo shteti që kontrollonte legjislacionin. " Legjislativja " në Islam jepte një shpjegim të kënaqshëm për sundimtarin dhe për një realitet të caktuar të politikës, por ajo nuk ishte produkt i politikës apo i politikes. Absolutizmi politik që përjetoi Evropa, bujkrobëria e pamëshirshme e feudalizmit, abuzimet e kishës, realitetet çnjerëzore të Revolucionit Industrial, dhe të gjitha ato që i bënë revolucionet të domosdoshme në Evropë, myslimanët nuk i kanë ndeshur kurrë si fat i tyre. Në tërësi, dhe pavarësisht nga mizoritë e pashmangshme të jetës njerëzore dhe mjerimeve të saj (të cilat, pa dyshim, nuk janë konservati vetëm i paramodernëve), myslimanët, po të flasim krahasimisht, jetuan për më tepër se sa një mijëvjeçar në një sistem shumë më tepër egalitar dhe të mëshirshëm, dhe, ç'është më e rëndësishmja për ne, nën një sundim të ligjit që moderniteti ndershmërisht nuk mund ta njollosë me shpifje kritike.[1] Dhe as nuk ka njohur qeverisja islame diçka të ngjashme me shkallën e mbikëqyrjes së gjeneruar nga sistemi policor dhe ai i burgjeve i shtetit modern. Këto, kaq të normalizuara dhe faktike sot, do të kishin qenë të tmerrrshme për myslimanët si spektre të dominizmit dhe mizorisë. Dhe, po ashtu, sundimi islam nuk u ngatërrua aq fort as me sferën e edukimit, i cili mbeti jo vetëm privat por gjithashtu joformal dhe tej mase i aksesueshëm, duke akomoduar të gjithë spektrin e shtresave sociale.[2] Sulltanët, emirët dhe vezirët vërtet themeluan institucione të arsimit të lartë (medresetë), por njëlloj si gjykatësit që emëronin dhe shkarkonin, ata nuk kishin asnjë ndikim mbi atë që mësohej dhe se si mësohej. Lëndët e edukimit – pjesa më e madhe të dhëna jashtë medreseve mbretërore[3] – mbetën për një kohë të gjatë ato që ishin thelbësore për ligjin dhe për të plotësuar nevojat e shoqërisë, pra, për të çuar në jetën e mirë të kërkuar. Ato pa dallim konsistonin në gjuhë (gramatikë, sintaksë), studime kuranore, tradita profetike, ligj, matematikë, mjekësi, kimi, logjikë, hermeneutikë, dialektikë, retorikë, dhe lëndë të tjera të ngjashme me ato. Ato kishin për qëllim zhvillimin e aftësive të përdorura brenda përbrenda rendit social, duke
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Günümüzde fıkha ilişkin derinlikli çıkarımlar ancak İslâm klasiklerinden modern sosyal bilimin genel ve özel meselelerine yayılan geniş bir bilgi dağarcığı ile inşa edilip desteklendiğinde yapılabiliyor. Meseleleri bu derin bilgi... more
Günümüzde fıkha ilişkin derinlikli çıkarımlar ancak İslâm klasiklerinden modern sosyal bilimin genel ve özel meselelerine yayılan geniş bir bilgi dağarcığı ile inşa edilip desteklendiğinde yapılabiliyor. Meseleleri bu derin bilgi dağarcığı ve hassas bir araştırmayla ele alan Wael b. Hallaq’ın fıkıh çalışmalarındaki müstesna yeri de bununla bağlantılı.
Wael b. Hallaq’ın makalelerinden oluşan Ahlâki Yonetimsellik Şeriat, Anayasa ve Ulus Devlet kitabında şeriatın Kur’anî kökenleri ve mahiyeti, moderniteyle birlikte geçirdiği dönüşüm ve ulus devletle karşılaşması gibi önemli meseleleri inceliyor. Farklı disiplinlerin birikiminden yararlanan yazılar, geniş bir analitik kavram seti sunuyor. Çalışmada ayrıca Şafiî bağlamında fıkıh usûlünün teşekkülü ve mahiyetine ilişkin sorgulamaları içeren neredeyse benzersiz bir arka plan ve bağlama sahip iki makalesine yer veriliyor. Hukuk ve ahlakı ayrılmaz bir biçimde ele alan müellif, fıkhın usûl ve fürû boyutunu teknik bir araştırmanın ötesinde entelektüel bir düzlemde değerlendirerek İslâm düşüncesine ilişkin yeni ufuklar açıyor. İslâm’a dair oryantalist dezenformasyonu tenkit ederek, fıkıhta sosyal pratiğini bulan İslâm’ın dünya tasavvurunu gündeme getiriyor.
Değerli, anlamlı ve güçlü argümanlarıyla öne çıkan Ahlâki Yonetimsellik Şeriat, Anayasa ve Ulus Devlet fıkhın temel özelliklerine ve bu hukukî ve kültürel sistemi incelemenin ne anlama geldiğine dair küllî bir bakış açısı sunuyor.
Wael b. Hallaq’ın makalelerinden oluşan Ahlâki Yonetimsellik Şeriat, Anayasa ve Ulus Devlet kitabında şeriatın Kur’anî kökenleri ve mahiyeti, moderniteyle birlikte geçirdiği dönüşüm ve ulus devletle karşılaşması gibi önemli meseleleri inceliyor. Farklı disiplinlerin birikiminden yararlanan yazılar, geniş bir analitik kavram seti sunuyor. Çalışmada ayrıca Şafiî bağlamında fıkıh usûlünün teşekkülü ve mahiyetine ilişkin sorgulamaları içeren neredeyse benzersiz bir arka plan ve bağlama sahip iki makalesine yer veriliyor. Hukuk ve ahlakı ayrılmaz bir biçimde ele alan müellif, fıkhın usûl ve fürû boyutunu teknik bir araştırmanın ötesinde entelektüel bir düzlemde değerlendirerek İslâm düşüncesine ilişkin yeni ufuklar açıyor. İslâm’a dair oryantalist dezenformasyonu tenkit ederek, fıkıhta sosyal pratiğini bulan İslâm’ın dünya tasavvurunu gündeme getiriyor.
Değerli, anlamlı ve güçlü argümanlarıyla öne çıkan Ahlâki Yonetimsellik Şeriat, Anayasa ve Ulus Devlet fıkhın temel özelliklerine ve bu hukukî ve kültürel sistemi incelemenin ne anlama geldiğine dair küllî bir bakış açısı sunuyor.
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Research Interests: Islamic Law, Islamic Economics, Political Philosophy, Political Theory, Violence, and 15 moreIslamic Education, Technologies of the Self, Political Violence, Modernity, Islamic Studies, Islamic History, Moral Philosophy, Islamic Banking, Islamic Economics and Finance, Moral and Political Philosophy, Citizenship, Shariah, Islamic State, Theories and critiques of modernity, and Critique of Modernity
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الملخص يدَّعي كالدر أن الموطأ لم يكن صنعة مالك ولا تأليفه، وإنما صُنِّف في وقت متأخر عن وفاته، يقدِّره كالدر بأنه حوالي عام 270ه/883م، كما أنه يدَّعي بأن تصنيف الموطأ لم يكن في الحجاز ولا في المشرق وإنما كان في مدينة قرطبة الأندلسية... more
الملخص
يدَّعي كالدر أن الموطأ لم يكن صنعة مالك ولا تأليفه، وإنما صُنِّف في وقت متأخر عن وفاته، يقدِّره كالدر بأنه حوالي عام 270ه/883م، كما أنه يدَّعي بأن تصنيف الموطأ لم يكن في الحجاز ولا في المشرق وإنما كان في مدينة قرطبة الأندلسية المغربية. وقد اعتمد كالدر في دعواه هذه على عددٍ من المنهجيات والحُجَج، يأتي في مقدمتها منهجيته الخاصة في المقارنة بين الموطأ وبين المدونة. كما أنه يعتمد أيضا على تحليل البنية الشكلية لأحد أبوابِ الموطأ.
اعتمد وائل حلاق في نقض ادعاء كالدر هذا على العلوم المتعلقة بتطور التصنيف الفقهي عند المالكية، وكان الاعتراض المركزي الذي وجه إلى تأريخ كالدر، هو وظيفة مالك وصورته في المدونة، حيث إنه يُصوَّر فيها -وإلى حد كبير- على أنه إمام المذهب، وفقيهه المطلق، ومؤسس المدرسة. وهذا يمنع القول بأن الموطأ هو نتاج للربع الأخير من القرن الثالث الهجري، ثم نجد صورة مالك فيه لا تعدو كونه راويا ينقل عن المرجعيات المتقدمة عليه، لأن تصوير مالك في الموطأ بهذه الصورة وفي ذلك التاريخ المزعوم، يتعارض مع وقائع تاريخية مشهورة وثابتة، كما إنه -إن صح- سيكون سببا في اندثار الموطأ وفي ألا يُكتب له أي فرصة للبقاء والاستمرار إلى يومنا هذا. وهذا يعني أن ادعاء كالدر لا يمكن أن يتفق مع الحقائق التاريخية.
الكلمات المفتاحية: تأريخ الموطأ، موطأ مالك، نورمان كالدر، وائل حلاق، تأريخ الحديث
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Abstract
Calder claims that the Muwatta is not Malik's own work, but that it was written sometime around 270/883, and not in the Hijaz, but rather in the Andalusian city of Cordoba. A substantial component of Calder's argument in Favor of a later composition date for the Muwatta consists of a comparative schema between the latter and the Mudawwana. He also depends in large part on a form analysis of a passage pertaining to the ritual uncleanliness of water used for ablution.
In refuting Calder's claim, Wael Hallaq relied on the sciences related to the development of the Maliki school of jurisprudence. The cardinal piece of evidence against Calder's dating, however, is the function and image of Malik in the Mudawwana, where he is transposed into a master jurist, the school's founder. It would have been impossible for the Muwatta to be a product of the last quarter of the third century Hijra and yet impart an image of Malik as a mere transmitter of others' authority. Such an image would have run against robust historical processes and would have had no chance of survival. This means that Calder's claim cannot be consistent with historical facts.
Keywords: Dating Muwatta, Muwatta Malik, Norman Calder, Wael Hallaq, Dating Hadith
يدَّعي كالدر أن الموطأ لم يكن صنعة مالك ولا تأليفه، وإنما صُنِّف في وقت متأخر عن وفاته، يقدِّره كالدر بأنه حوالي عام 270ه/883م، كما أنه يدَّعي بأن تصنيف الموطأ لم يكن في الحجاز ولا في المشرق وإنما كان في مدينة قرطبة الأندلسية المغربية. وقد اعتمد كالدر في دعواه هذه على عددٍ من المنهجيات والحُجَج، يأتي في مقدمتها منهجيته الخاصة في المقارنة بين الموطأ وبين المدونة. كما أنه يعتمد أيضا على تحليل البنية الشكلية لأحد أبوابِ الموطأ.
اعتمد وائل حلاق في نقض ادعاء كالدر هذا على العلوم المتعلقة بتطور التصنيف الفقهي عند المالكية، وكان الاعتراض المركزي الذي وجه إلى تأريخ كالدر، هو وظيفة مالك وصورته في المدونة، حيث إنه يُصوَّر فيها -وإلى حد كبير- على أنه إمام المذهب، وفقيهه المطلق، ومؤسس المدرسة. وهذا يمنع القول بأن الموطأ هو نتاج للربع الأخير من القرن الثالث الهجري، ثم نجد صورة مالك فيه لا تعدو كونه راويا ينقل عن المرجعيات المتقدمة عليه، لأن تصوير مالك في الموطأ بهذه الصورة وفي ذلك التاريخ المزعوم، يتعارض مع وقائع تاريخية مشهورة وثابتة، كما إنه -إن صح- سيكون سببا في اندثار الموطأ وفي ألا يُكتب له أي فرصة للبقاء والاستمرار إلى يومنا هذا. وهذا يعني أن ادعاء كالدر لا يمكن أن يتفق مع الحقائق التاريخية.
الكلمات المفتاحية: تأريخ الموطأ، موطأ مالك، نورمان كالدر، وائل حلاق، تأريخ الحديث
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Abstract
Calder claims that the Muwatta is not Malik's own work, but that it was written sometime around 270/883, and not in the Hijaz, but rather in the Andalusian city of Cordoba. A substantial component of Calder's argument in Favor of a later composition date for the Muwatta consists of a comparative schema between the latter and the Mudawwana. He also depends in large part on a form analysis of a passage pertaining to the ritual uncleanliness of water used for ablution.
In refuting Calder's claim, Wael Hallaq relied on the sciences related to the development of the Maliki school of jurisprudence. The cardinal piece of evidence against Calder's dating, however, is the function and image of Malik in the Mudawwana, where he is transposed into a master jurist, the school's founder. It would have been impossible for the Muwatta to be a product of the last quarter of the third century Hijra and yet impart an image of Malik as a mere transmitter of others' authority. Such an image would have run against robust historical processes and would have had no chance of survival. This means that Calder's claim cannot be consistent with historical facts.
Keywords: Dating Muwatta, Muwatta Malik, Norman Calder, Wael Hallaq, Dating Hadith