Samuel T Hunter

Criticisms of the dominant leadership perspectives in the literature are increasing and, as such, a growing number of scholars are calling for more complex and conceptually sound theories of leadership. With a multi-faceted perspective on effective leadership, detailed conceptual underpinnings, and increasing body of empirical support, the Charismatic, Ideological, and Pragmatic (CIP) model of leadership has the potential to address many of these concerns and substantively contribute to our understanding of effective leadership. Despite such advantages , however, wide scale proliferation of the model remains elusive. As such, this effort provides the first comprehensive review of the CIP model to analyze its potential to expand our understanding of leadership in science and practice. In doing so this review frames and organizes the existing CIP literature, identifies key strengths of the model, addresses key limitations of the model, and outlines future research opportunities that would benefit from adopting a CIP perspective.

For many terrorist organizations, also known as violent extremist organizations (VEOs), their ability to perpetuate violence is often contingent upon successful recruitment and selection of organizational members. Although academic work on terrorist recruitment and selection has improved in recent years, researchers have generally focused more heavily on aspects of radicalization rather than organization attraction and entry. Moreover, a number of terrorism scholars have lamented the lack of conceptual frameworks with which to interpret and extend findings linked to recruitment and selection, specifically. In light of these difficulties, we propose that considering literature bases outside of terrorism may be useful in extending lines of inquiry and offering alternative ways of thinking about how terrorist organizations operate. Specifically, we draw on Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Human Resource Management , and Organizational Behavior literature bases to offer alternative and extended modes of thought on terrorist recruitment and selection. In doing so, we believe both terrorism and more traditional organizational scholars can make substantive and novel contributions to future investigations of increasingly pressing issues surrounding violent extremism.

Using conservation of resources theory, we challenge traditional unity of command models of leadership and propose that a dual‐leadership framework can serve as a potential solution to the inherent challenges of innovation. Leading for innovation demands are depicted as uniquely disparate from other forms of leadership, resulting in several types of conflict and resource depletion for individual leaders. We contend that this exploration–exploitation role conflict and the resulting need to manage incongruent role identities produce stress, strain, and resource depletion that in turn hamper innovative goal achievement for both a single leader directly and via subordinates more indirectly. We propose, however, that as an extension of the resource investment tenet of the conservation of resources theory, a dual‐leadership approach may alleviate many of these challenges for innovation. Specifically, the addition of a second leader can add resources to innovation and in turn decrease the role conflict inherent in managing the generation and implementation of creative ideas. Limitations and areas for future research are offered.

Purpose We aimed to investigate the relationship between lower levels of agreeableness (i.e., disagreeable-ness) and innovation process such as idea generation, promotion, and group utilization, as well as potential contextual moderators of these relationships. Design/Methodology/Approach In the first laboratory study (n = 201), we examined links among individual and group measures of agreeableness, originality of ideas generated, and group utilization of ideas. In a second laboratory study (n = 291), we utilized confederates in an on-line environment to investigate the originality of ideas shared with group members after manipulating both feedback and originality of ideas generated by others. Findings In study 1, disagreeableness was generally unrelated to the originality of ideas generated, but positively related to group utilization of ideas. Similar trends were observed in study 2 with the caveat that disagreeableness was positively linked to originality of ideas shared only when the social context was unsupportive of novel ideas and confederate group members shared original ideas. Implications Disagreeable personalities may be helpful in combating the challenges faced in the innovation process, but social context is also critical. In particular, an environment supportive of original thinking may negate the utility of disagreeableness and, in fact, disagreeableness may hamper the originality of ideas shared. Originality/Value Few studies have investigated the relationship between disagreeableness and originality and even fewer have examined both the social context and stage of innovation in which these relationships may occur. Results suggest there is value in considering each in future investigations.

Emerging from the early work of Weber (1924), the charismatic, ideological, and pragmatic (CIP) model of leadership (Mumford, 2006) has enjoyed a recent surge in research attention. According to the model, the three leader types differ in a number of fundamental ways — differences largely tied to how the leaders provide sensemaking to followers. Although these differences are central to the model, these components have yet to be examined directly. As such, the aim of this study was to explicitly test the core tenants of the CIP model. Using a historiometric sample of college and NFL football coaches we found general support for specific predictions made by the model and in the aggregate, the model as a whole. We also examined the unique patterns and features that were used to distinguish among the leader types providing useful insight into how leaders may be categorized. Implications and future directions are discussed.

To increase innovative performance in work settings, most scholars agree that organizations need both an environment that is supportive of creativity as well as employees with high levels of creative potential. Substantial research effort has been aimed at understanding work contexts that facilitate creative thinking, yet less is known regarding how to most effectively recruit and hire creative talent. To fill this knowledge gap and guide future research efforts, we discuss the KSAOs most predictive of creative potential as well as the means and methods for assessing this potential. In addition, we explore the challenges to quantifying successful innovation, proposing that creative achievement represents a unique and specialized form of organizational performance. Supplementing this discussion we provide recommendations for obtaining high-quality, substantive criterion data. We conclude with a brief discussion on recruitment and long-term selection strategies for innovation.

Since the turn of the century, the area of leadership has seen notable growth in the amount of research conducted. As such, it now seems appropriate to evaluate how most leadership research is conducted, considering in particular the assumptions that are made when conducting the typical leadership study. Specifically, we explored the assumptions made with regard to (a) subordinates , (b) leaders, (c) context, and (d) the processes involved in leadership. Consideration of these assumptions reveals a number of problems ranging from simple methodological issues to more substantive theory-based concerns. Potential remedies are presented, along with a consideration of the long-term impact associated with the typical leadership study approach.

The effects of skew on the standardized item alpha were examined with Monte Carlo techniques. Alphas computed from normal variables were compared with alphas from lognormal variables, ranks, and skewed versus normal Likert-type variables. The extent and direction of skew were varied, as was the size of the population interitem correlation (rho), the number of items, and the number of categories for Likert-type variables. Because the average interitem correlation affects alpha and skew affects the average interitem correlation, the effect of skew on the average interitem correlation also was examined. Results indicated that skew decreased the average interitem correlation and produced small decreases in alpha that were largest when skew was large, rho was small, items were skewed in opposite directions, and there were fewer items. A considerable and growing literature is devoted to the development and validation of indices of reliability (Hattie, 1985). Despite differences among these indices, most measures of reliability are dependent in some form on correlation. Whether the relation examined is that between the same test given at different times (test–retest reliability), between two similar tests given at different times (parallel forms reliability), between two halves of the same test (split-half reliability), or among items within one test (internal consistency reliability), the measure of the strength of the relation is usually constructed from a ratio of covariance to variance , which is fundamentally a correlation. As correlations are the foundation of most measures of reliability, it is reasonable to assume that conditions that attenuate correlations will attenuate estimates of reliability.

Errors make up a substantial portion of the fabric of leadership, yet we know very little about how and why they occur. Using Fleishman et al.'s (1991) behavioral taxonomy as a foundation, we offer a multilevel theoretical framework for understanding the causes of leader error — discussing leader, group and organization level influences. The results of the effort reveal several key themes, including the negative impact of timeframe, complex influence of expertise, causes of rigidity in problem solving, and the key role of the subordinate in minimizing the negative impacts of error. A closer consideration of these themes reveals several practical and theoretical implications for reducing the frequency and severity of leader errors. We conclude with a discussion of directions for future research. Leaders must make the difficult decisions — the " tough calls " few of us want to make. Some must choose between pursuing a radically new product line, or remaining on a current strategic path that may grow stagnant in the future (Rickard, 1995). Others must decide to engage in cutbacks with the hopes they will help the company survive, even when it is unclear if the same cutbacks will send the organization into a financial tailspin (Ettlie, 2006). Coaches pick the final play of the game, fire chiefs decide if a building can be saved, and military commanders choose where to position their troops. What must be realized is that these decisions are characterized by risk — and with risk comes error. Not every choice will prove correct and no leader, regardless of how successful, lives an error free life (Bedell-Avers, 2008). Thus, an understanding of how and why these errors occur is a pressing matter for leaders, and for the vast majority of us who must live with their decisions. Evidence of the negative impacts of leader errors is readily available and, in many cases, highly visible. Case studies of Three-Mile Island, for example, reveal a number of management errors occurring in the early stages of the disaster — errors that might have been avoided under more careful leadership. A widely cited example of leader error is also seen in reports on the Challenger space shuttle explosion (Violanti, 2006). Despite having evidence of likely equipment and material failure (e.g., O-rings), team leaders either chose to disregard warnings or failed to receive such warnings — errors resulting in a launch that proved disastrous (Reason, 1990). One need not only focus on large-scale disasters to witness the impact of leader errors. In his review of three organizations and the leaders within them, Nutt (2004) illustrated just how impactful leader errors can be to business. An overzealous CEO at Quaker foods, for example, let his overconfidence after prior successes drive strategic decision making resulting in an acquisition of a product-line, Snapple, incongruent with the strategic plan and culture of the organization. The end result was an initial 10% loss in Quaker foods and a 1.4 billion loss in the eventual sale of Snapple. Although additional cases exist, the above should suffice to make our basic point: the examination of leader errors and their causes is essential. More centrally, gaining an understanding of error antecedents will help to establish comprehensive theoretical models of error as well as, more pragmatically, to develop interventions aimed at limiting the frequency, severity, and negative impact of error. Thus, the thrust of this effort is twofold: 1) to propose a definition and taxonomy of leader error and, more The Leadership Quarterly xxx (2011) xxx–xxx

Research on destructive leadership has largely focused on leader characteristics thought to be responsible for harmful organizational outcomes. Recent findings, however, demonstrate the need to examine important contextual factors underlying such processes. Thus, the present study sought to determine the effects of an organi-zation's climate and financial performance, as well as the leader's gender, on subordinate perceptions of and reactions (i.e., whistle-blowing intentions) to aversive leadership, a form of destructive leadership based on coercive power. 302 undergraduate participants read through a series of vignettes describing a fictional organization, its employees, and an aversive leader in charge of the company's sales department. They were then asked to envision themselves as subordinates of the leader and respond to several quantitative measures and open-ended questions. Consistent with Padilla and colleagues' (2007) toxic triangle theory, results suggest that both perceptions and reactions to aversive leadership depend on the three aforementioned factors. Specifically, aversive leaders were perceived more aversively and elicited greater whistle-blowing intentions in financially unstable organizations possessing climates intolerant of negative leader behavior. Moreover, female aversive leaders were perceived more aversively than their male counterparts under such conditions. Theoretical and practical implications as well as future research directions are also discussed.

Both popular press and academic research laud the benefits of creativity. Malevolent creativity, however, is the application of creativity to intentionally harm others. This study examines predictors of malevolent creativity, considering both contextual and individual difference influences. Social information processing theory suggests that situational cues might be more influential in shaping malevolent creativity. Two experimental laboratory studies test the effects of both formal and informal situational cues and find that these factors are predictive of malevolent creativity components above and beyond individual differences such as personality and cognitive ability. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

Creativity is commonly held to emerge from an interaction of the person and the situation. In studies of creativity, situational influences are commonly assessed by using climate measures. In the present effort, a meta-analysis was conducted to examine 42 prior studies in which the relationships between climate dimensions, such as support and autonomy, and various indices of creative performance were assessed. These climate dimensions were found to be effective predictors of creative performance across criteria, samples, and settings. It was found, moreover, that these dimensions were especially effective predictors of creative performance in turbulent, high-pressure, competitive environments. The implications of these findings for understanding environmental influences on creativity and innovation are discussed.

In our fast-paced world, it is necessary for organizations to continually innovate in order to stay competitive. At the same time, technology is continually advancing, and tools to facilitate work are frequently changing. This forces organizations to stay abreast of current technologies, and also puts pressure on employees to utilize the technologies available to them in order to devise innovative solutions that further the organization's goals. To date, there has been little research on how such technologies may best be used to facilitate such creative performance. The present chapter addresses this gap by integrating a model of the creative process from the psychology literature with technology literature from engineering and information technology. This chapter examines how specific technologies may influence performance at each stage of the creative process, and provides specific recommendations for how technology may be used to facilitate the development of creative solutions.

Over the past twelve months the US National Science Foundation NSF has sponsored a series of Workshops on interdisciplinary graduate design education: what it is and how we do it. Our graduate students are our future researchers, teachers—and JMD authors. Colleagues from the Pennsylvania State University have led this effort, which has included a substantial number of design researchers and educators from engineering and beyond. There is a critical question about how engineers can relate and collaborate with their non-engineering colleagues, and an attendant one about how work crossing the engineering boundaries can be properly reported in a design journal like JMD. I have asked our colleagues to present some initial thoughts, to provoke some further thinking and engagement in the evolving discipline of design.

The experiences people have over the course of their careers are commonly held to contribute to creative achievement. In this study, an attempt was made to identify the career events contributing to creative achievement in the sciences. Prior theoretical and empirical work was used to identify relevant career events in the areas of education, domain exposure, mentoring, adversity, work procedures, collaboration, laboratory leadership, and organizational influences. Obituaries were obtained for 499 scientists working in multiple fields in the social, physical, life, and health sciences and were used to assess whether these events were evident in scientists' careers. Comparisons of high achieving and low achieving scientists with regard to these events indicated that multiple events lying in each of these general areas contributed to career achievement. The nature of the events yielding significant differences were discussed regarding their implications for the development of creative potential in scientific fields.

Leading innovative pursuits requires a unique set of leadership behaviors— behaviors that are frequently at odds with traditional forms of management and organizational functioning. We have identified 14 of these tensions, or paradoxes, associated with leading innovative endeavors categorizing them into four clusters: internal/localized, team-level, organization-level, and situational. In addition, we consider some industry-derived solutions to these paradoxes, revealing how some highly innovative organizations have been able to successfully manage these tensions. Supplementing these solutions, we offer suggestions on how organizations might approach those remaining paradoxes, concluding with a discussion on necessary future research endeavors. Finally, we argue that the pursuit of innovation requires a unique leadership approach— one that may not be currently captured by traditional views of leadership.