Football

This paper contributes to the science of crowd dynamics and psychology by examining the social psychological processes related to the relative absence of "hooliganism" at the Finals of the 2004 Union Européenne de Football Association (UEFA) Football (Soccer) Championships in Portugal. Quantitative data from a structured observational study is integrated with data from a questionnaire survey of a group associated ubiquitously with 'hooliganism' -namely England fans. This analysis provides support for the contention that the absence of 'disorder' can be attributed in large part to the non-paramilitary policing style adopted in cities hosting tournament matches. Evidence is presented which suggests that this style of policing supported forms of non-violent collective psychology that, in turn, served to psychologically marginalise violent groups from the wider community of fans. The study highlights the mutually constructive relationships that can be created between psychological theory, research, policing policy and practice, particularly in relation to the successful management of 'public order'. The paper concludes by exploring some of the wider implications of this research for theory, policy, the management of crowds, social conflict, and human rights more generally.

The policing of football supporters in the UK is resource-intensive and expensive, with football crowds seen by many forces as inherently prone to misbehaviour, disorder and violence. As a result they are regularly subjected to high-profile, heavy-handed and intrusive policing strategies that are often designed with the imposition of a civil “banning order” on supposed “risk supporters” in mind. This article analyses underlying assumptions about the nature and risk of football crowds and, drawing comparisons with the ways in which political protests are policed and applying jurisprudence from a series of high-profile protest cases, questions the legality of dominant policing approaches to football crowds under both English public law principles and the European Convention on Human Rights. It concludes by proposing how strategies could be developed in a way that both protects the public and the rights of supporters who may on occasion associate with those suspected of engaging in football-related disorder

This book uses sports as a metaphor for research methods. It focuses on how to use and build frameworks for empirical research. The frameworks are analogous to a "play", which is connected to a unique purpose and directs the movement of players during the game. Examples from award winning student research support the chapters that introduce 4 different conceptual frameworks. Before a player can enter the game, he or she should be in shape and understand the rules. Effective teams have systems in place that help their players achieve top physical abilities. Likewise, student scholars need systems in place to ensure they have the necessary skills and preparation to conceptualize and write a strong paper. To do this, it is helpful to bring project management skills to the task of writing a paper. A project management system organizing a scholar's time, materials and Ideas is presented. The book is written using John Dewey and Charles Sanders Pierce's philosophy of science and theory of inquiry.

As the digital revolution continues apace, emergent technologies and means of communication have presented new challenges and opportunities for football studies. In turn, researchers active across the social sciences and beyond have responded and are beginning to carve out a new field of study - digital football studies. However, despite the growing number of empirical and theoretical papers that consider football and its relationship with digital culture, we are still very much in the early stages of understanding the digitalisation of our late modern moment. In this paper, using football as the context to explore the effects of digitalisation, we argue, what we call, hyper-digitalisation has resulted in the emergence of four recognisable trends: (1) Cultural resistance to the Murdochization of football spectatorship and news; (2) The integration of the ‘internet of things’ (IoT) at every level of the football industry; (3) The naturalisation of digital communication across the football industry; and (4) A deep and wide-reaching penetration of deterritorialisation processes. We conclude by arguing that we are witnessing clear changes in the way audiences and workforces engage with sport, entertainment, and leisure. To this end, we argue that leisure and football studies must develop empirically, methodologically and theoretically to better capture the nature of hyper-digitalised societies and the ways audiences are playing with and shifting the boundaries and possibilities for leisure.

Suarez-Arrones, LJ, Nuñ ez, FJ, Portillo, J, and Mendez-Villanueva, A. Running demands and heart rate responses in men rugby sevens. J Strength Cond Res 26(11): 3155-3159, 2012-The purpose of this study was to examine match running performance and exercise intensity in a Rugby Sevens (7s) team during competitive club-level matches. Time-motion analyses (global position system) were performed on 7 male rugby players during 5 competitive matches in a 2-day tournament. The players covered an average distance of 1,580.8 6 146.3 m per game (14 minutes). Over this distance, 34.8% (549.7 6 79.1 m) was spent standing and walking, 26.2% (414.8 6 105.1 m) jogging, 9.8% (154.6 6 53.5 m) cruising, 15.5% (244.5 6 80.1 m) striding, 5% (79.5 6 37.2 m) highintensity running, and 8.7% (137.7 6 84.9 m) sprinting. The average maximal distance of sprints, the number of sprints, the minimum distance of sprint, and the mean sprint distance over the game were 29.5 6 11.7 m, 7.4 6 3.9 sprints, 9.1 6 5.7 m, and 18 6 7.6 m, respectively. The player's work-to-rest ratio was 1:0.5. For over 75% of the game, the players were exposed to heart rates (HRs) .80% of their maximal HR. There were no statistical differences between the first and second halves in any of the variables analyzed. This study indicates that the physical demands of Rugby 7s are quite different from those encountered in other rugby codes and that the training regimes need to meet the increased overall running demands, the augmented high-intensity running actions, and the reduced work-to-rest ratios.

Objective: Examine the effect of different cleat plate configurations on plantar pressure during two tasks. Design: Thirty-six athletes ran an agility course 5 times while wearing 4 different types of Nike Vitoria Cleats: 1) Bladed, 2) Elliptical Firm Ground, 3) Hard Ground, and 4) Turf. Plantar pressure data were recorded during a side cut and a cross cut using Pedar-X insoles. Setting: Controlled Laboratory Study Participants: No history of lower extremity injury in the past six months, no previous foot or ankle surgery, not currently wearing foot orthotics, and play a cleated sport at least 2 times per week. Main Outcome Measurements: Contact area, total foot contact time, maximum force, total foot peak pressure, and the force-time integral (FTI) in the medial, middle and lateral regions of the forefoot. A 1x4 ANOVA (alpha=0.05) was performed on each dependent variable. A Bonferroni adjustment was conducted (α=0.008).

The aim of this research is to understand the experience of the football sector on the use of artificial turf (satisfaction, safety, sporting feature, or the advantages and disadvantages). The study was conducted on a random selection of 627 male participants (404 amateur/semi-professional footballers, 101 coaches and 122 referees) that regularly train/compete on artificial turf in Spanish football leagues. The

Low back pain (LBP) in children and adolescents was considered for many years to be rare and an indication of serious disease [1]. In the last two decades, epidemi-ological studies have shown that the prevalence of ... Ismail Bejia Nabiha Abid Kamel Ben Salem Mondher Letaief ...

This article explores the relationship between communities and short cycles in complex networks, based on the fact that nodes more densely connected amongst one another are more likely to be linked through short cycles. By identifying combinations of 3-, 4-and 5-edge-cycles, a subnetwork is obtained which contains only those nodes and links belonging to such cycles, which can then be used to highlight community structure. Examples are shown using a theoretical model (Sznajd networks) and a real-world network (NCAA football).

THE SCIENCE OF fluid replacement in athletic training, particularly with regard to American football players, has advanced during the past 3 decades. This advance has resulted in substantial decreases in heatstroke-related deaths during summer training sessions. Recent trends in football heatstroke fatalities toward significant increases may, in part, be attributable to or aggravated by the use of dietary supplements. Credible scientific evidence has been found that amphetamine derivatives and the ergonomic aid creatine may contribute to subclinical dehydration and heatstroke in selected individuals. Caution is urged in the education and evaluation of football players who train during the hot summer months.

Purpose: Body structure and physical development must be addressed when preparing junior athletes for their first season in a senior competition. The aim of this preliminary study was to measure the extent of the assumption that final year junior Australian Football (AF) athletes are at a physical mismatch to their senior counterparts. Methods: Twenty-one male participants (17.71 ± 0.27 y) were recruited from one state based elite junior AF competition and forty-one male participants (22.80 ± 4.24 y) were recruited from one club competing in the senior elite Australian Football League (AFL), who were subsequently divided into two groups; professional rookies aged 18-20 y (19.44 ± 0.70 y; n = 18) and professional seniors aged 21+ y (25.43 ± 3.98 y; n = 23). Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans of all participants were completed. Results: Despite being an average 6.0% and 6.1% lighter in total weight and lean mass respectively, no significant difference was found between the elite junior athletes and their professional AFL rookie counterparts. However, significant differences were demonstrated in comparison with the professional AFL senior athletes (P < .01). Both professional AFL groups demonstrated greater than 0.3 kg total bone mineral content (BMC) than the elite junior athletes (P < .01) and significantly greater segmental BMC and bone mineral density (BMD) results (P < .05). Conclusion: While the results identify the differences in body composition of the elite junior athletes, development in a linear fashion is noted, providing useful information for the creation of age appropriate expectations and training programs.

Context Concussion underreporting leads to delays in diagnosis and treatment, prolonging recovery time. Athletes&#39; self-reporting of concussion symptoms, therefore, reduces risk. Objective To evaluate the effectiveness of 3 concussion-education programs in improving concussion-reporting intention. Design Randomized controlled clinical trial. Setting Three high schools in California. Patients or Other Participants A total of 118 male football players (age = 14.88 ± 1.19 years). Intervention(s) Participants were randomly assigned to receive concussion education via CrashCourse (CC), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) video education materials (CDC-Vi), or CDC written education materials (CDC-Wr). Main Outcome Measure(s) The primary outcome was concussion-reporting intention, which was assessed at baseline, immediately after education, and at 1-month follow-up. Secondary outcomes were concussion knowledge, concussion-reporting attitudes, perceived concussion-reporting ...

This paper analyzes the procedure used by FIFA up until 2018 to rank national football teams and define by random draw the groups for the initial phase of the World Cup finals. A predictive model is calibrated to form a reference ranking to evaluate the performance of a series of simple changes to that procedure. These proposed modifications are guided by a qualitative and statistical analysis of the FIFA ranking. We then analyze the use of this ranking to determine the groups for the World Cup finals. After enumerating a series of deficiencies in the group assignments for the 2014 World Cup, a mixed integer linear programming model is developed and used to balance the difficulty levels of the groups.

Concussive events frequently occur in high impact sports such as North American football. The long term effects of concussive events on physical and psychological wellbeing are the focus of ongoing research. The purpose of this study was to determine if concussive events increase the incidence of depression in active semi-professional and professional North American football players. An anonymous online survey was sent to 200 players to collect the following self-reported data: position played, years played, number of concussions sustained and subsequent depressive symptoms using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CESD-R) scale. An independent T-test was used to determine differences in the number of concussive events in those with CESD-R scores &lt;16 vs. ≥16, where scores ≥16 are indicative of a depressed state. Likewise, an independent T-test was used to compare CESD-R scores between players with ≥3 concussions vs. ≤2. Individuals with a CESD-R score ≥16, sustained ...

Eight-hundred seventy-three Indiana high school football players were surveyed to investigate the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS). Subjects were varsity football players that were randomly selected from 27 high schools throughout Indiana. Out of a possible 1,325 subjects, 873 or 66% participated in the study. Subjects completed a 50 item questionnaire that measured demographic information, perceived use of AAS, reasons for use, and how AAS are taken. The results indicate that 6.3% of Indiana high school football players were current or former AAS users. The average age at time of first use of AAS was 14 years and 15% began taking before the age of ten. Almost half of respondents indicated they could obtain AAS if they so desired, and that other athletes, physicians, and coaches were listed as sources for AAS. Athletic trainers can play a vital role in disseminating accurate information about AAS abuse, including the long-term adverse health risks. These messages should beg...

Sporting terms have been used as metaphor and analogy to describe and prescribe life experiences. It has been suggested that the use of sport terminology can assist in the general understanding of complex terms and situations, however, the use of sport as metaphor and analogy for many aspects of social understanding can have negative consequences. The analogy of sport and

Nutrition is an undeniable part of promoting health and performance among football (soccer) players. Nevertheless, nutritional strategies adopted in elite football can vary significantly depending on culture, habit and practical constraints and might not always be supported by scientific evidence. Therefore, a group of 28 Portuguese experts on sports nutrition, sports science and sports medicine sought to discuss current practices in the elite football landscape and review the existing evidence on nutritional strategies to be applied when supporting football players. Starting from understanding football’s physical and physiological demands, five different moments were identified: preparing to play, match-day, recovery after matches, between matches and during injury or rehabilitation periods. When applicable, specificities of nutritional support to young athletes and female players were also addressed. The result is a set of practical recommendations that gathered consensus among in...

After the 1990&#39;s, the changes in the football world had helped to develop and to grow the economy of football rapidly. The development of digital broadcasting led to build a bigger commercial structure. With the effect of those changes, commercial incomes, sponsor revenues, stadium and facilities incomes, and betting incomes have increased over time. This rapid change also brings several problems. UEFA has published UEFA criteria in order to protect football&#39;s sustainability and viability in a long term. Depending on license criteria that is published by UEFA, it has used a road map for football clubs, regarding of corporate structure of UEFA to work, that identified the general rules like in a company structure and management that should be all the necessary factors of production in a systematic and effective way in order to transform football clubs to a corporate organization and make them sustainable. With this out of the common guide explains readers how to run a club in...

In this study of the last three UEFA European Football Championship (2000, 2004, 2008), we identify institutional entrepreneurs and examine the strategies they use to influence the institution they are part of (UEFA) through the introduction of new information technologies (e-ticketing, online and mobile broadcasting). We build on the literature related to institutional theory and field-configuring events to propose a framework of field configuring institutional change. Our preliminary results suggest that institutions are at play at several levels. For instance, a central key institution, the UEFA, is being maintained through the introduction of new practices (buffer institutions) such as e-ticketing during mega-events (EURO). We describe the type and nature of institutional work used by institutional entrepreneurs involved. Dans cette etude des trois derniers championnats d&#39;Europe de football (2000 2004 2008), nous identifions des entrepreneurs institutionnels et examinons les...

OBJECTIVE In the present study we aimed at investigating leptin levels in professional male athletes who have been exercising regularly for a long time and leptin levels in healthy sedentary males. METHODS The study included 10 male professional football players and 17 healthy sedentary males. The relations between groups in terms of leptin levels, Max VO2 levels, blood lactic acid levels before and after exercise and effort durations were investigated. RESULTS It was found in the study that although BMI of professional male athletes was higher than that of the healthy sedentary males, leptin levels of the former were significantly lower (p&lt;0.01), while VO2Max levels (p&lt;0.05) and test periods (p&lt;0.01) were significantly higher than those in the latter. As for lactic acid levels after exercise and between groups, these were also higher in athletes, but the difference was not statistically significant (p&gt;0.05). CONCLUSION Leptin levels of those who exercised regularly were...

We test for a relation between football match results and the specific national stock index returns during the period 1990–2006 by means of an event study approach. We employ two different econometric frameworks to cross-check our results and prevent them from being solely model driven: the constant mean model and a two-state Markov-switching market model. Both approaches find no significant

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of predicting actual one repetition maximum (1RM) bench press strength from the National Football League (NFL) 225-test in college football players. Forty-one Division II college football players participated in this study. Participants' upper body strength scores were expressed relative to body weight and results were compared across both tests. Mayhew et al. equation was used to predict 1RM. A repeated measures ANOVA and one-way ANOVA was used to compare the groups. The present study found that the Mayhew equation overestimated relative upper body strength of college football players, while high degree of reliability was found between the actual 1RM and the NFL-225 tests [Wilks λ =0.43, F (1,40) = 53.07, p =0.000, Eta-squared =0.57] and the correlation between these two tests was very high (r =0.94, p<0.001). The present study also found that defensive players were stronger than offensive players when scores were expressed relative to body weight. The finding of this study indicates that the NFL-225 test's applicability may not be identical for all college players. This study elucidates some of the difficulties associated with predicting 1RM. However, while it is difficult to predict 1RM, testing using sub-maximal loads are far less time consuming especially when they involve a large number of athletes. The results of this study should facilitate coaches in choosing the most appropriate strength testing procedure for their programs.

The present study investigated whether football has favorable effects in the treatment of mild-to-moderate arterial hypertension in untrained middle-aged men. Twenty-five untrained males aged 31-54 year with mild-to-moderate hypertension were randomized to a football training group (FTG, two 1-h sessions per week) and a control group receiving physician-guided traditional recommendations on cardiovascular risk factor modification (doctoral advice group, DAG). After 3 months, systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were lowered (Po0.05) by 12 AE 3 and 7 AE 1 mmHg in FTG, respectively, whereas no significant changes were observed for DAG, with the 3 months values being lower (Po0.05) in FTG than DAG (SBP: 138 AE 2 vs 148 AE 2 mmHg; DBP: 84 AE 2 vs 92 AE 2 mmHg). The resting heart rate was lowered (Po0.05) by 12 AE 2 b.p.m. in FTG after 3 months (67 AE 3 vs 79 AE 3 b.p.m.), whereas no change was observed for DAG. After 3 months, FTG had higher (Po0.05) VO 2max (8 AE 2%; 35.0 AE 1.6 vs 32.5 AE 1.3 mL/min/kg) and lower (Po0.05) fat mass (1.7 AE 0.6 kg), whereas no change was observed for DAG. In conclusion, football training is an attractive non-pharmacological supplement to the treatment of mild-to-moderate arterial hypertension in untrained middle-aged men.

The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of first half activity, overall match intensity and seasonal variation on the physical match performances of English Premier League football referees. Match analysis data was collected using the Prozone ® match analysis system from 19 fulltime professional referees during a total of 254 matches in the 2004-2005 season. Physical match performances were classified into three separate categories: 1, total distance covered (TD); 2, high-intensity running distance (running speed > 5.5 m/s, HIR); 3, average distance from infringements (DI). Using these match activity variables the influence of first half TD and HIR distances on second half activities and also the influence of players' match activities upon the referees' physical match performances were examined. The main finding of the present study was that the physical match performances of the referees were partly related to those of the players, in that the referees' HIR correlated with players' HIR (r = 0.43, p < 0.0001, n = 212). Furthermore, first half TD and HIR distances were found to be related to second half coverage in referees (r = 0.47 and r = 0.52, respectively, p < 0.001, n = 254). These results demonstrate a need to assess the overall match intensity prior to examining the physical match performance of the referee. Further examination is required as to whether reduced physical performances in the second half of matches are a consequence of referee fatigue, tactical strategies on behalf of the referee or reduced player match activities resulting in a slower tempo of match.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of 30 days of β-alanine supplementation in collegiate football players on anaerobic performance measures. Subjects were randomly divided into a supplement (β-alanine group [BA], 4.5 g·d −1 of β-alanine) or placebo (placebo group [P], 4.5 g·d −1 of maltodextrin) group. Supplementation began 3 weeks before preseason football training camp and continued for an additional 9 days during camp. Performance measures included a 60-second Wingate anaerobic power test and 3 line drills (200-yd shuttle runs with a 2-minute rest between sprints) assessed on day 1 of training camp. Training logs recorded resistance training volumes, and subjects completed questionnaires on subjective feelings of soreness, fatigue, and practice intensity. No difference was seen in fatigue rate in the line drill, but a trend (P = .07) was observed for a lower fatigue rate for BA compared with P during the Wingate anaerobic power test. A significantly higher training volume was seen for BA in the bench press exercise, and a trend (P = .09) for a greater training volume was seen for all resistance exercise sessions. In addition, subjective feelings of fatigue were significantly lower for BA than P. In conclusion, despite a trend toward lower fatigue rates during 60 seconds of maximal exercise, 3 weeks of β-alanine supplementation did not result in significant improvements in fatigue rates during high-intensity anaerobic exercise. However, higher training volumes and lower subjective feelings of fatigue in BA indicated that as duration of supplementation continued, the efficacy of β-alanine supplementation in highly trained athletes became apparent.

The objective of this article is to create a typology of football rivalries stemming from historical and/or present conflicts between various ethnic groups. Such football rivalries of an ethnic nature centre on various aspects, including nationality, ethnic identity, language, religion, territory or origin. The article is also aimed at presenting the phenomenon of attachment to a club – the so-called ‘football identity’ based on some component of ethnic identity. Although the article includes references to specific examples of rivalries, its purpose is rather to illustrate the geographical distribution of this phenomenon. The result will be a general ‘map’ of football ethnic rivalries in Europe (that is in member countries of Union of European Football Associations), which will be useful as a spatial illustration and a starting point for further discussion and research. The author has included not only the widely known and thoroughly examined examples of football rivalries resulting from ethnic and religious conflicts (e.g. Protestant Glasgow Rangers vs. Catholic Celtic Glasgow) but also those which have not been analysed yet (from Central and Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, etc).

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

The aim of this study was to determine effects of field sizes on technical parameters of small-sided games in football players. Eight amateur football players (27.23 ± 3.08 years, heigth: 171.01 ± 5.36 cm, body weigth: 66.86± 4.54 kg, sports experience: 12.88 ± 3.28 years) performed 4-a-side small-sided games (SSG) with different field sizes. In SSGs, field sizes were 30 x 40 m and 26 m x 24 m. SSGs was conducted as a series of 3 bouts of 6 min with 5 min recovery durations. All SSGs were videorecorded using two digital video camcorder positioned on a tripot. Shoot on taget, passes, succesful passes, unsuccesful passes, dripling, tackle, possession in SSGs were counted by Mathball Match Analysis System. The effects of bouts on technical score were examined separately using a Friedman’s test. Mann Whitney U test was applied to analyse differences between field sizes. There were no significant differences in shoots on target, total pass, successful pass, tackle, interception, possessi...

Concussion (defined as a traumatically induced alteration in mental status, not necessarily with loss of consciousness) is a common form of sports-related injury too often dismissed as trivial by physicians, athletic trainers, coaches, sports reporters, and athletes themselves. While ...

Background: The relationship between athletic peak performance and psychological training is well studied in various literatures on sports psychology. Insufficient awareness of the practical application of psychological skills training to athletes may not effective in handling psychological barriers. Methods: To encourage the benefit of sports players, a study may consist of all possible aspects of evaluation and a unique approach to address the psychological factors, such as stress, anxiety, etc. The purpose of this article is to fill the gap in the field of sport psychology and to meet the demand of sports players. This presented guidelines and suggestions could be useful for the researchers to import knowledge of psychological skill training to improve the mental skills of adolescent footballers. Conclusion: The practical application involves a systematic approach applied in a progressive manner in terms of the type of skills, volume of training, working intensity, specific need,...

Prior studies have suggested that the prevalence of sleep disordered breathing (SDB) among players in the National Football League (NFL) is disproportionately high. SDB can increase cardiovascular disease risk and is correlated with hypertension. NFL players have a higher prevalence of hypertension, and we sought to determine the prevalence of SDB among players the NFL and the associations of SDB with anthropometric measures and cardiovascular risk factors. Cross-sectional cohort study. NFL athletic training facilities from April to July 2007. A total of 137 active veteran players from 6 NFL teams. This evaluation of SDB among players in the NFL used a single-channel, home-based, unattended, portable, sleep apnea monitor. Multiple domains of self-reported sleep were assessed. Weight, body mass index, body fat percentage, neck circumference, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio, as well as blood pressure, cholesterol, and fasting glucose concentrations were measured. The mean ...

The robust effects of knowledge on memory for domain-relevant information reported in previous research have largely been attributed to improved organizational processing. The present research proposes the distinctiveness theory of skilled memory, which states that knowledge improves memory not only through improved organizational processing but also through more effective processing of differences between items in the context of the similarity defined by organization. Individuals with either high or low knowledge about NFL football were presented with lists containing items from the target domain (NFL football) or a control domain (cooking). Individuals either performed a category sorting task, a pleasantness rating task, or both. Results on a surprise free recall test later showed knowledge effects on memory (high knowledge individuals had greater recall than low knowledge individuals for football items but not for cooking items). Secondary measures established that the knowledge effect on memory was due not only to better organizational processing but also to more effective item-specific processing.

This study explored the social experience of wheelchair rugby from the perspective of the players. Eleven national level rugby players (10 males, 1 female with a mean age of 33 years) shared their experiences through the phenomenological methods of semistructured focus group interviews and artifacts. Three themes emerged from the thematic analysis (a) it&#39;s okay to be a quad, (b) don&#39;t tell us we can&#39;t, and (c) the power of wheelchair rugby. The athletes identified with a shared sense of community and the membership, fulfillment of need, influence, and shared emotional connections they used to authentically express themselves through their sport. The implications of the findings were interpreted within the theoretical context of psychological sense of community.

The physiological characteristics of football referees have received an increasing amount of focus in the scientific literature over the past decade. Studies have examined referee profiles, both physiological and anthropometric, 19 as well as the movement patterns and physiological load experienced during actual match play. Match analysis by D'Ottavio and Castagna 7 demonstrated that referees cover a mean ± SD distance, over the course of an average 95-minute match, of 11469 ± 983 m, with walking constituting 957 m, 4174 m of low-intensity running, 2585 m of medium-intensity running, and a total of 1556 m of highintensity running. Running at maximal speed accounted for 608 m, and nonorthodox directional modes-that is, sideways and backward running-accounted for 181 m and 1315 m, respectively. 7 Heart rate recordings collected during matches demonstrated that the mean cardiovascular strain imposed on referees during match is approximately 85% of maximal heart rate (HR max ). 9,11,21 However, as referees have been reported to spend approximately 75% of their total match time either standing, walking, or jogging, 11 the amount of high-intensity activity, performed at speeds of more than 15 km/hour during a match, is a better indicator of the physical demands of matches. Given the high physical load imposed on top-class referees during actual match play, 7,9,11 fitness levels need to be sufficient enough for the referees to be able to cope with the demands of their games through keeping up with play at all times and ensuring optimal viewing positions. This in itself is a challenge. However, when combined with the fact that referees are on average 10 to 15 years older than their playing counterparts 6,7,9 and aging has a negative effect on fitness levels, 20,23 referees have to work extremely hard in training to ensure that they attain, and maintain, an appropriate level of fitness. Also, in most countries referees Background: In comparison to the amount of literature that has examined the match demands of football refereeing, there has been little attempt to assess the impact of high-intensity training.

and has recently completed a Master of Commercial Law (University of Melbourne). He is the Director of Major Sport Projects for Sport and Recreation, Victoria and is responsible for overseeing the development of major sports infrastructure and major sporting events in Victoria, Australia. He is also a Senior Fellow at the University of Melbourne Law School lecturing in Event Management Law in the Melbourne Law Masters Program. 1. See, e.g., Case C-415/93, Union Royale Belge Socidtds de Football Ass'n v. Bosman (Bosman), 1995 E.C.R. 1-4921, 106 (recognizing "the considerable social importance of sporting activities and in particular football in the Community"). 2. Sport accounts for 3.7% of the GDP of the European Union and 5.4% of the European labor market.

The goal of this thesis is to investigate the potential of predictive modelling for football injuries. This work was conducted in close collaboration with Tottenham Hotspurs FC (THFC), the PGA European tour and the participation of Wolverhampton Wanderers (WW). Three investigations were conducted: 1. Predicting the recovery time of football injuries using the UEFA injury recordings: The UEFA recordings is a common standard for recording injuries in professional football. For this investigation, three datasets of UEFA injury recordings were available. Different machine learning algorithms were used in order to build a predictive model. The performance of the machine learning models is then improved by using feature selection conducted through correlation-based subset feature selection and random forests. 2. Predicting injuries in professional football using exposure records: The relationship between exposure (in training hours and match hours) in professional football athletes and in...

Two common single nucleotide polymorphisms within the COL5A1 gene (SNPs; rs12722 C/T and rs3196378 C/A) have previously been associated with tendon and ligament pathologies. Given the high incidence of tendon and ligament injuries in elite rugby athletes, we hypothesised that both SNPs would be associated with career success. In 1105 participants (RugbyGene project), comprising 460 elite rugby union (RU), 88 elite rugby league athletes and 565 non-athlete controls, DNA was collected and genotyped for the COL5A1 rs12722 and rs3196378 variants using real-time PCR. For rs12722, the injury-protective CC genotype and C allele were more common in all athletes (21% and 47%, respectively) and RU athletes (22% and 48%) than in controls (16% and 41%, P ≤ 0.01). For rs3196378, the CC genotype and C allele were overrepresented in all athletes (23% and 48%) and RU athletes (24% and 49%) compared with controls (16% and 41%, P ≤ 0.02). The CC genotype in particular was overrepresented in the back ...

Abstract: Community detection is an important research topic in complex networks. We present the employment of a genetic algorithm to detect communities in complex networks which is based on optimizing network modularity. It does not need any prior knowledge about the number of communities. Its performance is tested on two real life networks with known community structures and a set of synthetic networks. As the performance measure an information theoretical metric variation of information is used. The results are promising ...