Mitigation

Este artículo presenta una propuesta de caracterización de la intensificación desde una perspectiva pragmática con el objetivo de contribuir al establecimiento de una definición completa, delimitada y unitaria del fenómeno, que permita reconocer y discriminar los usos intensificaciones de otras categorías cercanas. Para ello, se revisan las principales aportaciones previas al estudio del fenómeno: desde las más extendidas, de carácter gramatical y semántico, a las más recientes de naturaleza pragmática. Se propone, por un lado, una explicación cognitiva y metarrepresentacional que define la intensificación como el intento lingüístico de un hablante por modificar los supuestos que le atribuye al oyente y que no responden a sus expectativas. Por otro lado, se considera que esta modificación de los supuestos del oyente persigue unos efectos retóricos determinados, normalmente relacionados con la consecución de metas locales o globales de los hablantes en una determinada interacción en ...

Rainfall-triggered landslides are part of a natural process of hillslope erosion that can result in catastrophic loss of life and extensive property damage in mountainous, densely populated areas. As global population expansion on or near steep hillslopes continues, the human and economic costs associated with landslides will increase. Landslide hazard mitigation strategies generally involve hazard assessment mapping, warning systems, control structures, and regional landslide planning and policy development. To be sustainable , hazard mitigation requires that management of natural resources is closely connected to local economic and social interests. A successful strategy is dependent on a combination of multidisciplinary scientific and engineering approaches , and the political will to take action at the local community to national scale.

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to estimate carbon mitigation impacts of project activities in a
community forestry project in Andhra Pradesh, India. Measurement and quantification of carbon
stocks, monitoring of these stocks over time and projections using models is necessary for assessing the
climate change mitigation potential or impacts of all forest development and conservation projects.
Design/methodology/approach – In this study, multiple mitigation assessment methods and
models were used to estimate the carbon mitigation impacts – PROCOMAP, TARAM and CATIE, by
adopting a three-tier approach similar to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Guidelines.
Findings – There are differences in mitigation potential estimates across models as well as across
tiers. The study highlights the strength and weaknesses and/or limitations and advantages of adopting
the different approaches and their applicability for estimating mitigation potential of a forestry project.
The same could be adopted for a future Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(REDD) regime also, given countries may not have the necessary technical capacity and data needed
during the post-2012 REDD scheme. While countries with advanced data, technical and research
capabilities could use models or, in other words, adopt the Tier-3 approach, countries with data and
technical limitations, as in India, could adopt a Tier-2 or Tier-1 approach to begin with.
Research limitations/implications – The limitations and advantages of use of the multiple
mitigation models is addressed.
Originality/value – This work would help understand use of three mitigation models by prospective
students and researchers and also the data needs and limitations for use of these models.

Intelligent Buildings (IB) have become increasing popular during the past decade, driven through the need to reduce energy, have more reactive and safer buildings, and increase productivity. IB integrate many systems that were in the past isolated from each other, including fire and life safety, HVAC, lighting, security, etc. Facilities contain commercial-in-confidence material and other valued assets; however, IB are integrated through open and common data communication protocols and hardware, leaving facilities exposed to external and internal threats. The study presents an investigation into IB, based on a defeat evaluation methdology. IB vulnerabilities considered two areas, namely physical and software vulnerabilties. Physical hardware vulnerabilities included physical access to the automation devices or workstations, communication networks, wiretapping, remote connectivity, foreign devices and local field programming. Software vulnerabilities included common connectivity proto...

Soil is the basic requirement for agriculture crop production and simultaneously the microbial activity is important to improve soil health for healthy crop growth because microbial communities play an important role in building a complex link between plants and soil. Microbiomes from plants, soil and extreme environments are naturally gifted with amazing capabilities which play significant roles in the maintenance of global nutrient balance and ecosystem functions. The microbiomes from diverse niches have in fact emerged as potential tools for improving the plant growth and productivity by diverse mechanisms include solubilization of nutrients, nitrogen fixation, hormonal stimulation as well as biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. Further, these microbiomes have an immense potential to maintain soil health and fertility. Thus, dependent on their mode of action and effects, these microbiomes can be used as biofertilizers, biopesticides, plant strengtheners, and phytostimulators whic...

The effect of housing and climate change on the Nigerian Environment was assessed employing secondary sources of data.  It revealed among other things that climate change is due to natural force and anthropogenic activities of man especially in the course of building his house.  This alters the Natural equilibrium of the eco-system.  The energy mostly used today in houses is produced from burning of fossil fuels which emits greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere.  These cause global warming and by extension climate change.  The paper recommended adaptation and mitigation strategies through sustainable architecture as panacea. It concluded that climate will continue to change; however, man must only tap the natural resources for his survival in a responsible and sustainable manner. Keywords: housing, climate change, built environment, adaptation, mitigation.

A vegetação do bioma Caatinga vem sendo afetado com a constante ação antrópica.  A pesquisa em tela tem como foco o envolvimento de um pool de atores sociais no processo de produção de mudas de Juazeiro (Zizyphus joazeiro), espécie desse bioma, para distribuição, sem ônus, à população com o intuito de contribuir na revejetação do espaço rural e urbano. Um total de 250 mudas com até cinco cm de altura, foram manejadas com o auxílio de uma foice, sob a copa de uma planta adulta situada na localidade Quixaba/Caicó/RN. O transporte aconteceu dentro de sacolas plásticas até o Centro de Produção de Mudas Xique-xique (CPMX), unidade de produção de mudas do município de São José do Seridó/RN. Todas foram transplantadas para embalagens plásticas de um quilograma. Do total, 24 mudas correspondente a 9,6% que chegaram ao CPMX sem a presença do substrato envolvendo o sistema radicular não sobreviveram.  As 226 plantas restantes morreram 18 unidades, correspondente a 7,9%. Portanto, um total de 208 mudas permaneceu temporariamente nas dependências do CPMX.  No monitoramento de distribuição os atores sociais foram assim distribuídos: estudantes, a quem foram entregues 85 mudas; governo do município de São José do Seridó, 25; entidades privadas, 92; a categoria “outros”, contemplando populares que desejam o plantio dessa xerófita na zona rural e urbana de suas respectivas municipalidade, um total de 45 mudas.

SEEDLING PRODUCTION OF NATIVE SPECIES FOR PLANTING IN SEMIARID WITH SOCIETY PARTICIPATION: REPORT OF AN EXPERIENCE WITH JUAZEIRO (Zizyphusjoazeiro).

Abstract:  The vegetation of the Caatinga has been affected by the permanent destructive human action. This research has as focus the involvement of a set of people, from different social representation in the process of production of Juazeiro tree seedlings (Zizyphus joazeiro), a specie of that biome. The project aims at distributing to the population the seedling trees, without charge, in order to contribute to the vegetation of the rural and urban space. The project worked with the total of 250 seedlings with up to five inches high, they were managed with the help of a sickle, under the canopy of a mature plant located in the town Quixaba/Caicó/RN. The plants were carried out inside plastic bags to Center Seedling Production, this center is called Chique-xique (CPMX), a seedling production center in the town of São José Seridó/RN. All of them were transplanted into plastic containers of one kilogram. 24 seedlings, 9,6%, did not survive, they arrived at the tree center (CPMX) without show the presence of the substrate surrounding the root system. Among the remaining 226 plants 18 units died, it corresponds to 7.9%. Therefore, a total of 208 seedlings remained temporarily at the CPMX. In distribution monitoring process people were organized this way: a) students, who were given 85 seedlings; Local Government of São José do Seridó, 25 plants; private entities, 92 trees, other category that covering popular that wished planting this xerophytic in rural and urban areas, we gave them a total of 45 seedlings.

Primer manual de mitigación de riesgos y desastres para Puerto Rico, desarrollado gracias al Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños de Hunter College (CUNY) y el Instituto de Desarrollo Empresarial y Acción Comunitaria (IdeaComún).  Define mitigación de riesgos; vincula los cursos de acción (COAs) del Informe de Recuperación del Gobernador con el área de mitigación; describe los tres programas que financian la mitigación aplicables a la recuperación de Puerto Rico: Mitigación bajo el Programa Community Development Block Grant-Disaster Relief (CDBG-DR) de HUD; Mitigación 406 bajo el Programa de Public Assistance (PA) de FEMA; y el Hazard Mitigation Grants Program (HMGP/404) de FEMA; explica la importancia de los planes de mitigación municipales; y provee una guía y recursos de apoyo para el acceso inicial a los fondos HMGP mediante cartas de intención, entre otros.

This paper argues that, contrary to recent scholarly accounts, at common law there is no ‘right to performance’ and that, at most, there is a ‘right to damages substituting for performance’, or a defeasible right to performance where specific relief is available. It is for this reason that many scholars talk of the plaintiff’s ‘performance interest’ instead. Nonetheless, the aim of all expectation damages, whether measured according to difference in value or cost of cure, is to vindicate the plaintiff’s performance interest and to provide a pecuniary substitute for performance itself. This aim is subject to other competing aims, including the presumption that a plaintiff should mitigate and minimise his or her loss. This paper illustrates through English and Australian case law how expectation damages substitute for performance, but also explores other competing aims at play in the cases.

Este artículo examina los aproximativos aproximadamente y más o menos, considerados en la bibliografía como expresiones sinonímicas. Se indaga su uso a partir del análisis de un macrocorpus formado por cuatro géneros discursivos que abarcan el continuo variacional que va desde el registro informal hasta el formal. El análisis efectuado revela notorias diferencias entre ambos adverbios focales: aproximadamente es más propio del medio escrito, está vinculado a la cuantificación y adquiere otros valores pragmáticos en pocas ocasiones; más o menos, por el contrario, es más frecuente en el medio oral, predica una modificación de la extensión de lo designado y sirve como mecanismo para comunicar otros efectos pragmáticos, entre ellos, la atenuación.

We argue that most of the work supposedly done by the date of assessment rule is really done by mitigation. The law of damages does not require judges to pick a date on a timeline between breach and trial, but in order to understand why it can sometimes look like this, we need a better understanding of the mitigation rule. Mitigation requires damages to be assessed as if the claimant acted reasonably, if in fact it did not. Where there is an available market it is reasonable to expect the claimant to have resort to it, often shortly after the date of breach. However, this should not disguise the fact that the underlying rule is mitigation. The language of “date of assessment” is just convenient (and sometimes inconvenient) shorthand to describe the outcome once the mitigation rule has been applied.

Este libro incluye trece capítulos dedicados a la atenuación y a la
intensificación en diferentes géneros discursivos desde una perspectiva semántico-pragmática. El volumen se organiza en tres secciones.
La sección I discute teóricamente la caracterización de ambos fenómenos. La sección II estudia mecanismos particulares de atenuación e intensificación en el español de España y América. La sección III ofrece estudios de corpus y con corpus discursivos sobre mecanismos atenuantes e intensificadores.

The emissions from road transport are serious threats to urban air quality and global warming. The first step to develop effective policies is to determine the source and amount of emissions produced. This paper attempts to review emissions from road transport using COPERT 4 model and examined possible emission mitigation strategies. In road transport, results have show that passenger cars are the main cause of CO 2, N 2O and CO emissions, while motorcycles are main source of hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. However, light duty vehicles and heavy duty vehicles are the main contribution of particulate matters. The total CO 2 equivalent emissions for road transport in Malaysia are 59,383.51 ktonnes for year 2007. Further results show that CO 2 emission is the primary source of greenhouse gas pollution which is 71% of the total CO 2 equivalent. A parametric study was conducted to estimate the potential emission mitigation strategies for road transport by taking the emissions in 2007 as a reference year. It was observed that promoting the public transport is an effective strategy to reduce emissions and fuel consumption from the technical view point. It can totally save up to 1044 ktonnes of fuel consumption and total CO 2 equivalents emissions can be decreased by 7%. It was noted that, fleet renewal and promoting natural gas vehicles will significantly contribute in the reduction of emissions in Malaysia. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032111002097 
http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1364032111002097/1-s2.0-S1364032111002097-main.pdf?_tid=9c630400-a9c7-11e3-afcc-00000aab0f6b&acdnat=1394616233_71c599d9472256f8ce09e2f25ca51183

La presente publicación es una obra colectiva que surge del Simposio “La comunicación de la mitigación y de la adaptación al cambio climático” que se desarrolló en Sevilla los días 21, 22 y 23 de marzo en el III Congreso Internacional Comunicación y Pensamiento, celebrado en la Facultad de Comunicación de la Universidad de Sevilla y organizado por el Laboratorio de Estudios en Comunicación (LADECOM) y el Grupo de Investigación Comunicar.
Dicho Simposio se propuso como un foro de debate e investigación en torno a la comunicación de las dos principales respuestas al gran reto del cambio climático: la mitigación y la adaptación.

A REVIEW OFfSUNAMIHAZARD MITIGATIONINTHE COASTALAND SMALL ISLANDS The
coastal areas of Indonesia, both geographically and geologically, have huge potentia/for tsunami
and earthquake hazards. The tsunami that happened in Indonesia is commonly caused by shallow
and strong earthquakes on the seabed. Basically, the hazard mitigations are divided into structural
and non-structural. Structural mitigation can be formed as soft protection by creating a greenbelt,
while hard protection by constructing a breakwate1; seawall andgroins. The greenbelt is a simple,
easy and cheap method for tsunami mitigation in coastal areas and small islands. It can be made by
planting mangroves or other plants that suitable with coastal characteristics. On the other hand,
non-structural mitigation,for instance, can be made by creating several related policies on disaster
mitigation activities.

Makalah ini berusaha mengkaji proporsi substansi materi Ilmu Pengetahuan Bumi dan Antariksa dalam Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) ditinjau dari aspek resiko bencana alam. Hasil analisis dan kajian ini diharapkan dapat dijadikan bahan pertimbangan dalam peninjauan kembali muatan materi
resiko bencana dalam pengembangan kurikulum di masa mendatang. Pentingnya pemetaan substansi materi
ini dilatarbelakangi oleh kondisi geografis Indonesia yang sangat rentan terhadap terjadinya bencana alam
khususnya bencana geologi. Analisis dilakukan terhadap KTSP untuk jenjang Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. Substansi materi IPBA untuk KTSP jenjang Pendidikan  Dasar diidentifikasi pada KTSP matapelajaran IPA dan IPS. Adapun untuk substansi materi IPBA pada jenjang Pendidikan Menengah diidentifikasi dalam KTSP matapelajaran Fisika dan Geografi. 
Hasil analisis terhadap materi IPBA dalam Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) menunjukkan bahwa untuk SD terintegrasi dalam mata pelajaran IPA dengan porsi 23,53 % dari jumlah keseluruhan materi IPA yang diberikan, untuk SMP diberikan pada mata pelajaran IPA dan IPS dengan porsi
IPA 6,94% dan IPS 5,26%, untuk SMA diberikan pada mata pelajaran fisika dan geografi dengan porsi fisika
2,70% dan geografi 55,56% dari keseluruhan materi dikelas X atau 19,23% untuk program IPS. Dengan jumlah porsi materi IPBA yang relatif kecil dalam KTSP, maka pembelajaran harus dipersiapkan dengan baik agar tercipta masyarakat yang siaga bencana. Proporsi materi IPBA yang masih relatif sedikit dalam
KTSP juga menunjukkan bahwa pemikiran terhadap upaya pemahaman resiko bencana belum menjadi bagian yang signifikan dalam materi pembelajaran di sekolah.

Nicaragua es uno de los países del Hemisferio Occidental con mayor vulnerabilidad al cambio climático. A la par de la vulnerabilidad ambiental, se suma la ausencia de la infraetructra adecuada para hacer frente a los desastres naturales. Después del Huracán Mitch en 1998, el país inició un proceso de mejoramiento de sus capacidades de prevención, mitigación y atención de desastres que llevaron a la creación de un Sistema Nacional que ha venido funcionando con moderadas capacidades. Sin embargo, en el ámbito municipical, esas capacidades son aún muy limitadas. En ese sentido, he elaborado este “Protocolo Modelo para Gestión de Riesgos y Desastres Naturales en Municipios Rurales de Nicaragua” como un aporte para los municipios de mayor vulnerabilidad ante desastres naturales en Nicaragua. Este documento pretende responder, al menos parcialmente, a la pregunta: ¿Cómo pueden las agencias de desarrollo, apoyar a los municipios de mayor vulnerabilidad en situación de desastres?

Al respecto, el presente protocolo de actuación, presenta una breve reseña sobre la situación actual de amenaza y vulnerabilidad de los municipios y establece las principales acciones que se  podrían desarrollar, desde una agencia de cooperación o programa de desarrollo municipal. Con este fin, se sugieren roles y responsabilidades del equipo técnico en cada uno de los componentes que podrían formar parte de un plan operativo anual, tanto para aquellas acciones preventivas como aquellas post y durante. El propósito de este protocolo es el de servir como “modelo” o ejemplo para programas de desarrollo municipal, que bien pueden ser programas del gobierno central o de la cooperación.

Al leer este Protocolo Modelo, es muy importante tener en cuenta que su propósito no es se usado de forma mecánica o directa en todos los municipios que han sido tomados como ejemplo, sino más bien servir de guía o de modelo ilustrativo—especialmente para agencias de cooperación para el desarrollo—que pueda ser adaptado a necesidades particulares de cada municipio. También es importante recordar que ningún programa de desarrollo municipal auspiciado por una agencia de cooperación, sustituye el rol protagónico del estado en la creación de capacidades de respuesta. En ese sentido, el estado—tanto a nivel local como municipal—continúa teniendo la mayor jerarquía a la hora de la toma de decisión, por lo que este protocolo sólo aborda los posibles espacios de acción que tendrían una agencia de cooperación como entidad complementaria a la acción estatal y comunitaria. Finalmente, es justo aclarar que si bien este es un documento técinico, las opiniones o ejemplos son enteramente responsabilidad del autor.

In addition to the nationwide phenomenon of mass incarceration,  there exists a sub-problem in the U.S. of overrepresentation in prisons and jails of those with severe and persistent mental illnesses (SPMI).  The disproportionate imprisonment of those with mental illnesses is one driving force of mass incarceration.  Furthermore, we have reached an era characterized by the “criminalization of mental illness.”  Driving this is another feature of the mass incarceration era, the change in the types of institutions that incarcerate those subject to social control in American society.  With the deinstitutionalization movement, and the closure of mental health institutions (largely brought about by the 1963 Community Mental Health Act),  there has been a shift towards incarcerating the mentally ill in criminal justice institutions such as prisons and jails.  This essay will consider the role mental illness should play in sentencing, and how this might reduce the disproportionate levels of prisoners with mental illness. More specifically, this paper examines the sentencing rules where the defendant has a SPMI, but has failed to successfully meet the insanity defense.

All critical infrastructures around the globe have become an increasing target of cyberattacks day by day. These cyberattacks are significantly concerning the healthcare sector as their primary target [1,2]. The last few years have seen the healthcare sector is undergoing an extraordinary transformation. There is a substantial shift from traditional system procedures towards modern, automated, and complex systems [2]. The outdated IT infrastructure, insecure database approaches, vulnerability systems still exist in most early level healthcare firms. They are not efficient to manage the high amount of data processing, new types of equipment and storage needs. When examining the adoption of Healthcare Information Systems (HIS) in the healthcare industry, the security of patient's data, data of hospital employees and hospital informational data is the most overbearing restrictions to access for the cyber attackers [3]. The study will discuss the critical infrastructure security of the healthcare industry, and threats to healthcare infrastructure and various techniques that can use to prevent happening cyberattacks and how to apply them to the IoT [Internet of Things] based health care sector. The study also focuses on Encryption standards used in the health care sector to defend its infrastructure from cyber threats.

Disaster can be defined differently by institutions since fight disasters and planning are multidisciplinary field. Disasters can occur in different ways and cause great destruction in unprepared societies. One of the events that cause the results to be described as a disaster is the fires and they are frequently seen both in our country and in the world.
In this study, the awareness levels of the students of the Civil Defense and Firefighting Program related to the fire and other disasters, the relationship between the disaster and firefighting profession and opinion on disaster studies in Turkey were examined. The study was carried out with the students of Kocaeli University, Izmit Vocational School, Civil Defense and Firefighting

Program in the 2018-2019 Spring Semester and the data were obtained by semi-structured interview. The results of the study show that the students of firefighting program are aware of their occupational importance especially in response to disasters, they know about the institutions related to disasters and they have expectations about job opportunities in these institutions. However, the results of the study show that students, who agree that they have professionally active duties as a support force in response to disaster response, search and rescue and disaster response teams, have lack of knowledge about disaster management, basic concepts related to disaster management, effective response and fight disasters.

Sitiarjo merupakan salah satu desa rawan bencana banjir di Kabupaten Malang. Sitiarjo memiliki profil wilayah yang rendah dibandingkan daerah sekitarnya, terdapat dua sungai, dan terdampak air pasang laut. Kondisi tersebut menjadi faktor mendasar terjadinya banjir bandang di
Sitiarjo. Disamping faktor itu terdapat faktor lainnya yang menyebabkan bencana banjir tersebut. Berbagai faktor menjadi pendukung banjir bandang Sitiarjo, dimana periode kebencanaannya semakin
memendek dari tahun ke tahun. Melihat hal tersebut, masyarakat Sitiarjo memiliki pengalaman yang dihasilkan dari proses adaptasi lingkungan. Pengalaman itu merupakan mitigasi bencana banjir bandang berbasis kearifan lokal. Penelitian ini bertujuan mengidentifikasi mitigasi banjir bandang berbasis kearifan lokal masyarakat Sitiarjo. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif dengan pendekatan historis. Teknik pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan studi literatur, observasi,
wawancara, dokumentasi, dan analisis trianggulasi. Pengambilan sampel menggunakan teknik purposive sampling. Teknik analisis yang digunakan yaitu analisis deskriptif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan mitigasi masyarakat Sitiarjo terdiri dari mitigasi non-struktural dan struktural. Mitigasi non-struktural meliputi dimensi pengetahuan, nilai, solidaritas kelompok, dan mekanisme pengambilan keputusan. Sedangkan mitigasi struktural masyarakat dapat dilihat berdasarkan dimensi mitigasi mekanik. Mitigasi bencana berbasis kearifan lokal masyarakat Sitiarjo berkontribusi dalam meminimalisir risiko bencana banjir bandang. Namun lambat laun kearifan lokal masyarakat mulai
memudar. Melihat hal tersebut, perlu adanya penguatan nilai kearifan lokal masyarakat dari berbagai belah pihak. Diharapkan agar dapat menjadi upaya mitigasi bencana banjir bandang yang efektif oleh
masyarakat lokal.

Bencana banjir dapat dikategorikan sebagai proses alamiah atau fenomena alam yang dipicu oleh beberapa faktor penyebab seperti curah hujan, iklim, geomorfologi wilayah, dan aktivitas manusia yang tidak terkendali dalam mengeskploitasi alam yang mengakibatkan kondisi alam dan lingkungan menjadi rusak (Pedoman Pengendalian Pemanfaatan Ruang di Kawsan Rawan Bencana Banjir). Bencana banjir merupakan salah satu bencana alam yang selalu terjadi setiap tahun di Indonesia terutama pada saat musim penghujan. Berdasarkan sudut pandang morfologi, banjir terjadi di negara-negara yang mempunyai bentuk bentangalam yang sangat bervariasi dengan sungainya yang banyak. Berdasarkan hasil rekapitulasi bencana oleh Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB) tahun 2014, bencana yang paling sering terjadi di Indonesia dari tahun 1815-2011 adalah banjir sebanyak 3990 kejadian (39%), angin puting beliung sebanyak 1171 kejadian (17%) dan tanah longsor sebanyak 1600 kejadian (16%). Banjir di Indonesia umumnya terjadi di Indonesia barat, karena tingkat curah hujan yang sangat tinggi dibandingkan dengan wilayah Indonesia bagian timur. Terlebih lagi, curah hujan yang tinggi di wilayah Indonesia bagian barat belum didukung dengan penyediaan infrastruktur drainase yang memadai sehingga aliran air tidak lancar.
Kabupaten Tangerang merupakan salah satu wilayah yang sering terjadi banjir. Dari hasil pemetaan yang dilakukan oleh Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah (BPBD) Kabupaten Tangerang, terdapat 19 kecamatan yang merupakan daerah rawan bencana banjir diantaranya adalah Kecamatan Tigaraksa, Pasar Kemis, Kresek, Kronjo, Sukadiri, Kemiri, Pakuhaji, Mauk, Gunung Kaler, Sepatan, Jambe, Pagedangan, Kosambi, Teluknaga, Mekar Baru, Sepatan Timur, Rajeg, Jayanti, dan Balaraja (www.kabar6.com, Feb 2016). Banjir di lokasi tersebut disebabkan oleh meluapnya sungai yang melintas di wilayah tersebut. Kelurahan Pasirnangka yang merupakan bagian dari wilayah Kecamatan Tigaraksa, Kabupaten Tangerang menjadi titik terparah bencana banjir.
Perumahan Mustika Tigaraksa merupakan satu-satunya perumahan di Kelurahan Pasirnangka yang selalu terjadi banjir setiap tahunnya. Banjir ini banyak menyebabkan kerugian bagi masyarakat seperti terhambatnya aktivitas masyarakat untuk bekerja, sekolah,
2
berbelanja dan lain sebagainya akibat sulitnya akses jalan. Selain itu, banjir juga banyak menimbulkan berbagai macam penyakit seperti gatal-gatal, diare, malaria, deman berdarah dan lain sebagainya. Kerugian materi juga dialami oleh masyarakat yang terkena bencana banjir seperti kerusakan dan kehilangan harta benda dan bahkkan dapat menimbulkan korban jiwa.
Untuk mengurangi risiko bencana atau kerugian yang ditimbulkan akibat terjadinya bencana banjir, maka perlu adanya upaya mitigasi bencana yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah dan masyarakat baik melalui pembangunan fisik maupun penyadaran dan peningkatan kemampuan menghadapi ancaman bencana.
Untuk itu, penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk mengidentifikasi karakteristik banjir di Perumahan Mustika Tigaraksa, kemudian dilanjutkan dengan menganalisis penyebab masalah banjir di Perumahan Mustika Tigaraksa, sehingga dapat merumuskan strategi pengendalian bencana banjir yang tepat di Perumahan Mustika Tigaraksa.

Çölleşme, iklim koşulları ve insanların etkisiyle kurak ve yarı kurak karasal ekosistemlerin bozulması ve yoksullaşmasıdır. Bu durum fauna ve flora çeşitliliğini azaltır ve bitkisel üretimi düşürür. Dünya’nın birçok yerinde iklim koşulları, insanlığın gıda güvenliğini, barınma ve geçimini sağlamak için yaptığı faaliyetleri etkilemesine rağmen, insanların doğal kaynakları etkin ve sürdürülebilir olarak kullanma gereğini dikkate almayan eylemleri, kuraklığın etkisini şiddetlendirmektedir. Yeryüzünde yaklaşık 100 ülkede 900 milyon insan çölleşme ve kuraklık probleminin olduğu alanlarda yaşamaktadır. Öte yandan, 2025 yılında çölleşmeden etkilenen nüfusun ikiye katlanacağı ifade edilmektedir (Özden, 2000).
Dünyada sulanabilen tarım arazilerinin % 30 'u (1,5-2,5 milyar ha), yağışa bağlı tarım alanlarının % 47 'si (3,5-4,0 milyar ha) ve meraların ise % 73 'ü (35 milyar ha) çölleşmeden belli düzeylerde etkilenmekte olup, bu alanlar arazi degradasyonu nedeniyle tamamen veya kısmen üretkenliğini kaybetmektedir. Kısaca, çölleşme dünya nüfusunun yaklaşık 1/6 'sını ve dünyanın toplam kara alanının 1/4 'ünü etkilemektedir (KHGM, 1999).

Dünya gıda ihtiyacındaki açığın büyümesinin nedeni, hızlı nüfus artışının yanı sıra, çölleşme ve arazi bozulmasıdır. Çölleşme ve buna bağlı olarak arazi bozulmasına; · Fiziksel, biyolojik, politik, sosyal, kültürel ve ekonomik faktörler arasındaki kompleks etkileşimler,
· Ekolojik olarak çok hassas araziler olan kurak ve yarı kurak alanlardaki nüfus artışı ve gıda temini ihtiyacının ekosistemler üzerine yaptıkları büyük baskılar, · Arazi kullanım projelerinin çoğunun, nüfusun sosyo-ekonomik durumlarını ve doğal kaynakların dinamiklerini ve sürdürülebilirliğini çok az dikkate alan bir anlayışla dizayn edilmesi, ve
· Doğal kaynakları gerektiği gibi değerlendiremeyen ve yanlış kullanımları
cesaretlendiren ekonomik politikalar neden olmaktadır.
Bu nedenlerle oluşan ve şiddeti gün geçtikçe artan çölleşme, aşağıdaki sosyal ve ekonomik sonuçları doğurmaktadır:
· Aşırı nüfus baskısı ve uygun olmayan kaynak kullanımı; arazinin bozulmasına, üretkenliğin azalmasına, gıda temininin güvence altına alınamaması ile birlikte, yoksulluğun ve göç oranının artmasına neden olur.
· Çölleşme ve arazi bozulması; bölgesel ve küresel enerji dengesini etkilemekte, karbon fiksasyonunu ve depolanmasını düşürmekte ve karbon salımını artırmaktadır.
· Arazi bozulması; sediment kirliliği, tuzlanma ve genel çevresel bozulma yoluyla verimliliğin kaybına ve sulak ekosistemlerin bozulmasına, yağışa bağlı (kuru) tarım sistemlerinde gen ve tür çeşitliliğinin kaybına sebep olur.
Modern bilimin üzerinde durduğu ve dünyada büyük sosyal problemlerin
nedenlerinden biri olan çölleşme, dünya çapında bir sorundur. Çölleşme sadece çevresel bir sorun olmayıp, aynı zamanda, ülkelerin kalkınmasını etkileyen, çözümü için ulusal ve uluslararası işbirliğine ihtiyaç duyulan bir konudur. Bu sorunun aşılmasında, çölleşmeden etkilenen insanların desteğinin sağlanması kaçınılmazdır.
Çölleşme, sadece geri kalmış ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerin sorunu olmayıp, gelişmiş ülkelerin de en önemli konularından biridir. Çünkü, bu sorunun ana nedenleri doğal kaynakların insanlar tarafından kendi yaşamlarını devam ettirmek ve yaşam standartlarını yükseltmek için olumsuz bir şekilde kullanılmaları, hızlı nüfus artışı, sanayileşme ve bunların sonucu orman ve tarım ürünlerine olan aşırı taleptir. Bunun sonucu olarak da, ormanlar, meralar ve tarım arazileri aşırı ve plansız kullanımlarla sürdürülebilir verimlilik ve üretkenliklerini kaybetmiştir.
Ülkelerin sosyo-ekonomik yapılarına, insan sağlığına ve doğal kaynaklara olumsuz etki yapan ve ciddi önlemler alınmadığı takdirde gelecekte etkisini daha da hissettirecek olan bu sorunun çözümünde uluslararası işbirliği sağlamayı amaçlayan ‘Çölleşme ile Mücadele
Sözleşmesi’ büyük bölümü yarı kurak nitelikte olan ülkemiz için de son derece önemlidir.
Ülkemiz, sahip olduğu iklim koşulları nedeniyle, çölleşmenin şiddetini dünyanın bu bakımdan hassas bölgelerine göre daha az hissetmektedir. Ancak, arazilerimizin yeteneklerine göre kullanılmaması, yanlış tarımsal işlemler ve sağlıksız sulama yöntemleri, aşırı toprak ve mera kullanımı, tarımsal amaçlı orman tahribi ve değerli tarım arazilerinin tarım dışı
amaçlarla kullanılması geleceğimizi tehlikeye atan arazi bozulmasına (degradasyonuna) neden olmaktadır. Sonuç olarak, Türkiye kuraklıktan etkilenen ve çölleşme riski taşıyan, topraklarının % 86 'sında hafiften çok şiddetliye kadar çeşitli derecelerde erozyon probleminin yaşandığı bir ülke konumuna gelmiştir.
Bu nedenle “Türkiye Çölleşme İle Mücadele Ulusal Eylem Programını (Taslak)” hazırlanmıştır. Planın hazırlanmasında, sözleşme ve ekleri ile Taraflar Konferanslarında (Conference of Parties – COP) konu ile ilgili alınan kararlar dikkate alınmıştır.

This training manual shares hands-on experiences from field programs and presents the essential practical and theoretical steps, methods and tools to estimate the opportunity costs of REDD+ at the national level. REDD stands for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation. REDD+ additionally includes conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks in developing countries. The manual addresses the calculation of costs and benefits of the various land use alternatives in relation to their carbon stocks and the identification of economic trade-offs involved in REDD+ activities. As required data are generally not readily available, the manual also includes information on data collection, analysis and evaluation techniques. http://wbi.worldbank.org/wbi/Data/wbi/wbicms/files/drupal-acquia/wbi/OppCostsREDD+manual.pdf