Illegal Logging

1. La gobernanza forestal es necesaria para poder alcanzar una gobernanza más amplia que permita conservar los bosques en el paisaje. 2. Asegurar derechos de propiedad sobre la tierra y recursos forestales son la base para que funcionen los mercados de bosques y productos forestales (madera). 3. Resolver los derechos de propiedad del carbono, y definir las reglas del juego para el funcionamiento de los mercados de carbono. 4. Promover el acceso e intercambio de información, e impulsar mecanismos de coordinación entre las instituciones asociadas al manejo y conservación de los bosques en el paisaje. 5. La participación de los actores interesados relevantes, en especial los grupos más vulnerables, garantiza alcanzar acuerdos que fortalecen la gobernanza y la protección de los bosques, y permite alcanzar los objetivos de los procesos FLEGT y REDD+. 6. Se requiere que los Estados revisen los mandatos institucionales de sectores antagónicos a la conservación y manejo sostenible de los bosques 7. La legalidad forestal debe ser costo-efectiva y ayudar a garantizar que el bosque y las cadenas de valor de productos forestales sean alternativas económicas competitivas 8. Los incentivos de mayor impacto son aquellos que crean las condiciones favorables para desarrollar negocios forestales legales 9. Los costos de transacción para la conservación de los bosques deben transferirse a otros sectores causantes de la deforestación, para así reducir en alguna media las asimetrías de competitividad del sector forestal con otros sectores productivos del paisaje 10. Para garantizar efectividad y eficiencia, se deben alinear los procesos FLEGT y REDD+ en los países

Illegal logging has become a global issue because of its effects on biodiversity and climate change. In order to reduce illegal logging, many countries around the world have introduced regulations of international trade of forest products. This paper examines the effects of efforts aimed at reducing illegal logging on the comparative advantage of seven types of forest products by using the HOV model. The results show that measures against illegal logging have affected the comparative advantage of international trade in different directions. The number of regulations a country enforced to combat illegal logging has negative effects on its net export of charcoal and wood residues, but has positive effects on the net export of other forest products. The effects are statistically significant for all types of forest products except paper and wood pulp.

Small loggers’ associations in Guyana have grown from one to 73 between 2000 and 2014 with over 2 000 members and 4 000 chainsaw millers. They hold 128 2-year renewable harvest licences to 488 Kha, generally in rainforest already degraded by uncontrolled logging. The slippages between government policies and actual practices in respect of the associations are traced through the evolution of chainsaw milling from the mid-1980s. Using the institutional analysis of property theorists, SLAs are shown to be associations in name only. The State regulatory agency controls access to concession licences and the structure and functioning of the associations. The political patronage system, administrative discretion and the short-term licences awarded on the one hand and the individual milling operations of members on the other hand lead to dysfunctional associations. Only 1/3 of the associations have formally registered legal personality and so the majority are ineligible for bank credit or direct donor support.

Using production and trade flow data from 1946 to 2012, this paper assesses the state of Russia’s forest resources and demonstrates how sweeping changes ushered in by perestroika and globalization have forged a highly export-dependent forest sector. In tracking these flows through China to US urban centers, we demonstrate how consumption patterns affect ecosystems and socioeconomic relations in resource and manufacturing peripheries far beyond regional and national borders. The research is illustrative of how the “ecological shadow” of forest change and degradation in post-Soviet Russia is a confluence of factors related to both consumption and production.

Summary Illegal logging and the international trade in illegally logged timber is a major problem for many timber-producing countries. It causes environmental damage, costs governments billions of dollars in lost revenue, promotes corruption, undermines the rule of law and funds armed conflict. It retards sustainable development in some of the poorest countries of the world. Consumer countries contribute to these

Romanian forest strategies. A brief analysis
The current study aims to analyse how Romanian forestry strategies are constructed (elaborated and stated), with an emphasis on the way the phenomenon of illegal logging is treated. The employed methodology is the social document analysis: six plans and strategies developed at the national level are investigated. The results highlight the fact that for 20 years, Romania did not have a national strategy in the field of forestry, either because it did not elaborate one, or because it did not exceed the phases of elaborating, approving and implementing it. In the timeframe 2001-2010 Romania had a formally developed and approved forestry strategy, but its result has not been evaluated: its impact is not known. The current strategy was developed in 2012 with some phrasing and
structure deficiencies. It is currently in the plan and program evaluation phase with respect to the environmental impact.
Keywords: forestry strategies, public policies, social document analysis, illegal logging.

Eksploitasi alam yang terjadi merupakan dampak dari pemenuhan kebutuhan, manusia kini hanya peduli pada dirinya sendiri, hak - hak alam dikesampingkan dengan alasan kebutuhan dan tuntutan - tuntutan gaya hidup sebagainya. Kecenderungan untuk mengutamakan kepentingan ekonomis yang lebih menguntungkan dari segi finansial dinilai mengacuhkan kesejahteraan sumber daya hutan. Padahal dampak dari kerusakan hutan memberi pengaruh terhadap lingkungan global.
Terdapat persoalan penyalahgunaan oleh pihak non pemerintah (pengusaha) dan pemerintah, sehingga yang dirugikan tidak hanya manusianya saja namun juga alam. Pentingnya etika administrasi sebagai kontrol moral dalam melakukan tindakannya sebagai administrator. Diharapkan memberikan azas etis, pedoman moral dalam berprilaku dan kebajikan moral secara sadar yang diterapkan oleh setiap administrator guna terselenggaranya pemerintahan yang adil dan baik bagi kepentingan bersama.

Although Thailand is considered one of the world’s major seafood exporters, it has encountered the European Union's decision to issue a yellow card since April 21, 2015. This was due to its lack of concrete solutions to illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing (IUU) that meet international standards. In other words, there still exist the use of illegal fishing equipment and the lack of fishing vessel number control which result in declining marine animal resources, over fishing, and problems of forced labor stemmed from Thailand’s downgrade to Tier 3 in the June 2014 US’s Trafficking in Persons Report (TIP Report) [1]. Regarding to this, SCB Economic Intelligence Center (EIC) used to anticipate that Thailand may lose up to 500 dollars worth in revenue. In case the import of seafood from the EU is suspended. The present problems include illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishery activities. In the case of Thailand, it is currently found that the means of fisheries have changed from those in the past and are mostly prone to being illegal, posing various negative consequences. Subsequently, International organizations have encouraged the Thai government to impose legal measures, applying technologies, and seek cooperation from every related sector--in order to come up with the appropriate measures for eliminating and encountering illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing. These aim at bringing about effective management and sustainable use of marine resources. This research reveals that Thailand has already applied technologies effectively as well as proposed concrete operational approaches, resulting in international organizations’ acceptance of Thailand’s fishing standards.

In recent years, various forms of inter/transnational state-building have become in- creasingly common as a way of managing the perceived risk posed by dysfunctional governance in so-called fragile states to Western security. In Solomon Islands, the Australian government has led a robust and expansive regional intervention, designed to build the capacity of the Solomon Islands government and bureaucracy to provide more effective governance. Dominant approaches to state-building link state failure with a failure of development and typically involve considerable efforts to promote economic development through the establishing of institutional structures seen to be supportive of liberal markets. Though economic activity has expanded considerably in So- lomon Islands following the initial 2003 intervention, much of this has occurred in the unsustain- able logging industry, whose expansion is reliant upon primitive accumulation. Therefore, to the extent that the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands’ (RAMSI) state-building pro- grammes have supported market-led growth, they have unwittingly acted to mitigate the risk to primitive accumulation. However, the logging boom occurring on RAMSI’s watch is likely to lead to future social and political instability, either as a result of resource-depletion or due to bottom-up forms of social conflict around the destruction of local habitats.

This study analyses the extent to which the Romanian National Plan Against Illegal Logging (Planul Național de Combatere a Tăierilor Ilegale de Arbori (PNCTIA) fulfils the conditions of a functional public policy proposal; the degree of knowledge specialists (forestry staff, policemen, prosecutors); and the general public have about it; what efficiency they attribute to it; and the need for a new strategy. The main limitations of PNCTIA with respect to defining and formulating the public policy issue were identified using the document analysis technique. Moreover, the questionnaire technique was employed to evaluate the specialists and the public view towards the plan. Over 40% of the interviewees consider PNCTIA to be inefficient, while 33% were undecided. 77% wished for the adoption of a new public policy; 85% highlighted the matter as urgent. The low level of efficiency of PNCTIA was correlated with the need to have another intervention plan and with high urgency to implement the measures. The perspective of having a new programme correlates positively both with institutional involvement and with urgency level of the actions. The study highlights the importance of participatory processes in the development of public policies.

Illegal logging. About the getting of the problem in the institutional agenda

The study, focused on the problem of illegal logging, aimed to identify prospectively what were the main social problems associated with the field of forestry activity before Romania's accession to the EU and which was the document that represented the first Public Policy Proposal formulated in order to solve the problem. Methodologically, the content analysis and the documentary analysis of a sample from the written press of 2006 and of some programmatic documents elaborated in the organizational practice were used. The conditions were verified that the problem of illegal logging could qualify from the public agenda to the formal agenda and the main stakeholders who intended to include public policy on the Government's working agenda were identified. The position of the media regarding social problems and the competent authorities in the forestry field was quantified and the main limits of the National Plan for Combating Illegal Logging were noted.

Keywords: forestry policies, content analysis, documentary analysis, media, illegal logging.

African rosewood (Pterocarpus erinaceus), a species estimated to be the most heavily traded tropical hardwood in the world is now considered endangered (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018). Concerns about its sus- tainability have resulted in several felling/export bans, listing and up-listing on CITES Appendices. Using export, import and seizure data over a period of 8 years, this study assesses the impact of felling/export ban and CITES designation on the exploitation and trade of African rosewood in Ghana. The results showed that, the felling/ export ban, and CITES designation are yet to have a significant impact on reducing exploitation of rosewood in Ghana. While the ban was operative, exploitation has rather increased by 129%, and incidence of illegal trade has shot up by 120% in the CITES-designated period (2016–2018) compared with pre-CITES period (2010–2015). Factors contributing to the limited impact of the felling/export ban and CITES designation include abuse and misapplication of salvage permit, lack of monitoring and transparency, corruption, ‘lawful but awful’ trade, and non-compliance with key requirements of CITES Appendix II listing such as NDF. The findings of the paper demonstrate the important role of early monitoring and assessment in identifying gaps in forest law enforcement and governance that need to be addressed in order to ensure effective enforcement of CITES and domestic regulatory mechanisms targeted at sustainability of rosewood and other endangered species.

La problemática de la tala -y comercio- ilegal es un tema complejo que ha cambiado a través del tiempo, influenciada por diversas corrientes de pensamiento y tendencias institucionales, económicas y sociales (Campos et al, 2001). En el informe “Situación de los bosques del mundo 2005” de la FAO (FAO, 2005a) se señala que en Centroamérica, durante la década de 1990 al 2000, se perdieron en promedio 341,000 hectáreas por año, es decir, la cobertura forestal se redujo en un 1.91% anual. La mayor pérdida se presentó en Nicaragua con 117,000 hectáreas por año y la menor tasa de deforestación fue para El Salvador, pero esto debido a que este país ya ha perdido su mayor riqueza forestal (FAO, 1994). Estudios (Richards et al, 2003) señalan a la tala ilegal como una de las causas de la deforestación y degradación de bosques en la Región.
En este sentido algunos países desarrollan esfuerzos para combatir la tala ilegal, por ejemplo en Costa Rica, el Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC) desarrolla la Estrategia Contra la Tala Ilegal (ECTI). No obstante, Del Gatto (Del Gatto, 2003) explica la importancia de desarrollar una estrategia de combate de tala ilegal conjunta entre los países de Centroamérica: “Es evidente que esfuerzos aislados de parte de un solo país corren el riesgo de tener efectos limitados. La reducción de la tala ilegal a lo interno del mismo pudiera significar un incremento en las importaciones (licitas e ilícitas) de los países vecinos”. Por ejemplo, la reducción de la tala ilegal en Costa Rica y Guatemala ha tenido aparente consecuencias de aumento de la tala y comercio ilegal en Nicaragua.
Es por eso que, en los últimos años ha habido un creciente reconocimiento de la dimensión transnacional y regional de la gobernanza forestal, siendo que un aspecto clave es el comercio de madera. La demanda de madera de parte de un país importador puede tener muchos beneficios para el país exportador (empleo, generación de divisas, recaudación de impuestos, etc.), pero también puede causar un incremento de la producción forestal ilícita, especialmente si el nivel de gobernanza forestal es algo bajo. Al mismo tiempo, los esfuerzos de manejo forestal en el país importador pueden ser gravemente debilitados si hay importación de madera de origen ilegal que se vende a precios más bajos de la madera nacional. En ambos casos el resultado puede ser una espiral hacia abajo de la gobernanza forestal, reduciendo la posibilidad de aplicar políticas para fomentar el manejo forestal ordenado.
Por otro lado, la existencia de un comercio clandestino es también una señal de un potencial económico. El desafío no es cómo apagar dicho ‘motor económico’, sino como promover o manejar los aspectos sociales y ambientales.

�En este contexto, el presente estudio representa un intento de analizar el comercio de productos forestales en Centroamérica y sus posibles implicaciones para la gobernanza forestal regional. Es un estudio exploratorio que se realizó durante los meses de octubre, noviembre y diciembre de 2006 y enero de 2007, tomando tres países centroamericanos como base para analizar las dinámicas de comercio con sus vecinos, estos países fueron: Honduras, Nicaragua y Costa Rica. En cada uno de ellos también se realizaron estudios de caso de puntos fronterizos en donde el trasiego de productos forestales se realiza con mayor intensidad, estos estudios se presentan en la sexta parte de este documento.
Dada la complejidad del tema, así como la limitación de los recursos financieros disponibles, el método utilizado fue tratar de tipificar y analizar el comercio transfronterizo de productos forestales con un enfoque de sistema, tratando de entender las causas por las que los actores deciden utilizar las vías legales o ilegales. Al final, se pudo documentar el problema pero se debe tomar en cuenta que, para profundizar aún mas en materia de volúmenes, especies y tipos de productos trasegados ilegalemente, se requiere de un monitoreo sistemático que recopile datos previamente escogidos y utilizando una metodología que permita realizar comparaciones cruzadas entre las naciones estudiadas.
El presente documento está conformado por 10 partes, considerando esta introducción, y una sección de anexos. La segunda parte trata sobre aspectos conceptuales de los sistemas de verificación de la legalidad y sobre la ilegalidad en el comercio de productos forestales, la tercera comenta generalidades sobre el contexto y la institucionalidad del comercio de productos forestales en Centroamérica. La cuarta parte toca el tema de los estándares de legalidad para el comercio transfronterizo de madera y la administración necesaria para el comercio transfronterizo legal de madera para Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Honduras. La quinta parte trata de las estadísticas de comercio transfronterizo de productos forestales de Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Honduras. La sexta parte presenta 9 estudios de casos de dinámicas fronterizas de comercio entre países. La sétima analiza el desempeño de los sistemas estudiados con base en los temas de apropiación, diseño, estándares de legalidad e impactos. La octava y novena secciones tienen que ver con las conclusiones y recomendaciones y la décima parte se trata de un anexo de importaciones y exportaciones oficiales de productos forestales entre los países y una lista de las personas entrevistadas y contactadas durante el estudio

Active citizenship and participatory community-development approaches have evolved partly in response to perceived aid-dependency among rural communities. In Solomon Islands these methods have met with mixed success. This article reflects on the frustration often felt by local and international development workers when working with rural communities. It questions some of the assumptions that shape the way in which development workers and programmes understand the types of community which make up Solomon Islands.

Illegal logging is a major environmental and economic problem, and exceeds in some countries the amounts of legally harvested timber. In Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, illegal logging increased and reforestation on abandoned farmland was widespread after the breakdown of socialism, and the region's forest cover trends remain overall largely unclear. Our goal here was to map forest cover change and to assess the extent of illegal logging and reforestation in the Ukrainian Carpathians. We used Landsat TM/ETM+ images and Support Vector Machines (SVM) to derive forest change trajectories between 1988 and 2007 for the entire Ukrainian Carpathians. We calculated logging and reforestation rates, and compared Landsat-based forest trends to official statistics and inventory maps. Our classification resulted in reliable forest/non-forest maps (overall accuracies between 97.1%–98.01%) and high clear cut detection rates (on average 89.4%). Forest cover change was widespread in the Ukrainian Carpathians between 1988 and 2007. We found forest cover increase in peripheral areas, forest loss in the interior Carpathians, and increased logging in remote areas. Overall, our results suggest that unsustainable forest use from socialist times likely persisted in the post-socialist period, resulting in a continued loss of older forests and forest fragmentation. Landsat-based forest trends differed substantially from official forest resource statistics. Illegal logging appears to have been at least as extensive as documented logging during the early 1990s and so-called sanitary clear-cuts represent a major loophole for overharvesting and logging in restricted areas. Reforestation and illegal logging are frequently not accounted for in forest resource statistics, highlighting limitations of these data. Combating illegal logging and transitioning towards sustainable forestry requires better monitoring and up-to-date accounting of forest resources, in the Carpathians and elsewhere in Eastern Europe, and remote sensing can be a key technology to achieve these goals.

Indonesia is a country that has the third largest forest area in the world. That makes Indonesia one of the world's lungs. However, the annual depletion of forest areas threatens the preservation of Indonesia's forests. One of the main causes is illegal logging which is rife in Indonesia. Therefore, the Government is carrying out criminal law enforcement efforts to prevent and eradicate the practice of illegal logging. However, these efforts are not running optimally, because it is still difficult for investigative cases (P-21) to go up to the trial stage, judges' verdicts are too light, and the majority of criminal entrapment is only on field perpetrators. The authors recommend the method of tracing asets in handling illegal logging cases in Indonesia to optimize the case verification. This research is a qualitative normative juridical research study using a statute approach and a case approach. The conclusion of this study shows the urgency of tracing asets in handling illegal logging cases because of the large size of Indonesia's forests and all the potential contained therein; the rampant deforestation that occurs every year in Indonesia, especially as a result of illegal logging; and suboptimal illegal logging. For the urgency of the authors recommend the method of tracing asets in handling illegal logging cases.

Problem statement: This study investigated the issues of trade and en vironment on sustainable development. It has reviewed the existi ng literatures on trade and environment and conceptualized the economic, environmental and social effects of sustainable development. The review has six parts. Approach: Firstly, we discussed the market access, barriers to trade and impediments. Secondly, we state the trade liberalization,

"Illegal forest activities are increasingly recognised as one of the major sources of deforestation and the degradation of the world’s tropical forests. International recognition of and response to the problem of illegal forest activities—most notably illegal logging—
have significantly increased since the 1990s, with numerous international, regional and bilateral initiatives emerging across the globe. The international response to illegal forest activities is largely focussed on illegal logging (i.e., the harvesting of timber in violation of national laws) and the enforcement of forest regulations as the major strategy for addressing illegal forest activities and non-compliant behaviour.
This PhD thesis assesses the relationships between law enforcement and the livelihoods, individual motivations and contextual factors that inform compliance with forest rules. The
research builds on a case study of the law compliance of forest farming communities inhabiting the fringes of forest reserves in the High-Forest Zone of Ghana. The study first explores the concept of forest communities’ livelihoods and the potential implications of the EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) voluntary partnership agreement (VPA) for forest communities’ livelihoods (Article I). Second, it examines farmers’ forest values and the potential role of these values in farmers’ compliance with forest rules (Article II). Third, it explores the motivations and factors that influence farmers’ compliance with a number of formal or state forest rules (Article III). Finally, Article IV proposes an analytical framework for forest law compliance, outlining a set of factors and variables that affect compliance behaviour at the individual and group levels. The study results are derived from an expert questionnaire survey concerning the forest
communities’ livelihoods in the FLEGT VPA in Ghana and an interview survey with farmers in the High-Forest Zone of Ghana concerning farmers’ forest values and their compliance with a number of forest rules. The study results suggest that the implementation of the FLEGT VPA is likely to have both positive and negative impacts on forest communities’ livelihoods. Further, it suggests that farmers ascribe major importance to those forest values, which directly contribute to their livelihoods, including forests’ subsistence, environmental and economic values. Concerning law compliance, it is found that farmers’ compliance with forest rules is determined by a myriad of factors, including
the perceived fairness and legitimacy of the rules and ruling authorities, social and cultural norms, fear of sanctions, and the need for resources for their livelihoods and for domestic use. Further, the study suggests that farmers’ forest values may, to some extent, influence their compliance with forest rules. Finally, based on the theories of rule compliance and available literature on the sources of non-compliance in forestry, the study identifies a set variables influencing compliance behaviour at the individual level (e.g., instrumental incentives, legitimacy and social and personal norms), and group or societal level (e.g., regulatory constraints, political capacity, corruption, property rights and markets)."

Post-war situations can present an opportune context for white-collar crime in resource sectors – including corruption, tax evasion, land dispossession, and illegal resource exploitation. This paper investigates various forms of white-collar crime and associated human rights abuses, and points at biased processes of ‘criminalization’. Whereas white-collar crime is frequently legitimated under the guise of reconstruction and economic growth strategies, the victims of corruption and resource grabs often become ‘criminalised’. Such selective forms of criminalisation reflect a securitisation of resource sectors characterised by repressive forms of resource enclosures and increased socio-economic inequalities; putting resource-related white-collar crime at the core of negative peace economies.

LASCO, R. D., VISCO, R. G. & PULHIN, J. M. 2001. Secondary forests in the Philippines: formation and transformation in the 20th century. Secondary forests are the largest and most dynamic natural forest ecosystems in the Philippines. This paper examines the characteristics and dynamics of secondary forests in the country. In the last century, the country lost 50% of its natural tropical forest cover. At present, the major land cover types in terms of areal coverage are upland farms, secondary forests, protected forests, brushlands, grasslands and tree plantations. The two most dominant types of secondary forests are post-extraction secondary forests and swidden fallow secondary forests. The former stems from legal and illegal logging, which are ultimately rooted in corruption, poverty and high population pressure. At present, post-extraction secondary forests are the main source of wood products of the country. Although secondary forests initially increase as a result of heavy comme...