Umberto Albarella

Cattle were the predominant domestic animal in the Iron Age and Roman Netherlands, yet their management is still incompletely understood. Some aspects of cattle management, such as birth season and the provision of fodder, have received little or no attention so far. This paper is the first to investigate these aspects for the Iron Age and Roman Netherlands, through a case study of the site of Houten-Castellum. The rural settlement of Houten-Castellum was inhabited from the Middle Iron Age to the Middle Roman period, allowing a comparison between the Iron Age and Roman period. Excavations at this site have yielded a large, well-preserved animal bone assemblage. This paper investigates cattle husbandry by using an integrated approach, combining a multi-isotope analysis (oxygen, carbon and strontium) with archaeozoological and archaeobotanical results from Houten-Castellum and comparing the results with archaeobotanical evidence for fodder and evidence for dairy use for the Iron Age and Roman Netherlands in general. While our data set is small and results must therefore be interpreted cautiously, there is convincing evidence for an extended birth season in the Middle Iron Age, as well as the use of fodder.

Distinguishing between the bones of sheep and goat is a notorious challenge in zooarch-aeology. Several methodological contributions have been published at different times and by various people to facilitate this task, largely relying on a macro-morphological approach. This is now routinely adopted by zooarchaeologists but, although it certainly has its value, has also been shown to have limitations. Morphological discriminant criteria can vary in different populations and correct identification is highly dependent upon a researcher's experience, availability of appropriate reference collections, and many other factors that are difficult to quantify. There is therefore a need to establish a more objective system, susceptible to scrutiny. In order to fulfil such a requirement, this paper offers a comprehensive mor-phometric method for the identification of sheep and goat postcranial bones, using a sample of more than 150 modern skeletons as a basis, and building on previous pioneering work. The proposed method is based on measurements—some newly created, others previously published–and its use is recommended in combination with the more traditional morphological approach. Measurement ratios, used to translate morphological traits into biometrical attributes, are demonstrated to have substantial diagnostic potential, with the vast majority of specimens correctly assigned to species. The efficacy of the new method is also tested with Discriminant Analysis, which provides a successful verification of the biometrical indices , a statistical means to select the most promising measurements, and an additional line of analysis to be used in conjunction with the others.

The assemblage from Greenwich High Road has interesting implications for our understanding of 18th- and early 19th-century tanneries and also of the use of bones as building material. The study of the age at death of the animals revealed that the horncores are mostly from fully adult individuals, probably culled draught animals. This hypothesis is supported by biometrical analysis. The comparison of the Greenwich horncores with modern data and archaeological evidence suggests that the Greenwich assemblage is predominantly composed of oxen. The horncores were used to line a drain on the site and are likely to represent waste material resulting from the activities that took place in the nearby tannery. Skins and horns were removed for craft purposes, while the bony cores, with no economic value, were simply used as cheap and ready material to help the construction of the drain.

Although domestic fowl is often found at Italian archaeological sites at least from the 6th century BC onwards, it becomes widespread only in the Roman period. Throughout the Middle Ages, chicken played an important role in the Italian food economy as attested by the substantial number of bones of this bird recovered from archaeological contexts. This research is focused on the identification of trends in chicken exploitation that can be linked to production and/or consumption. The analysis of bone assemblages shows an increase in the frequency of chickens from the 13th century onwards. In urban contexts, which reflect consumption more than production, anatomical parts with a higher meat value are more frequent. Chickens were probably bred at rural sites, as attested by age and sex evidence.
Early medieval chickens from Rome appear to have had the largest body size. The requirements of the market did not seem to have imposed an improvement in chicken size in later centuries.

In this paper we discuss domestic livestock morphometric data from the Late Neolithic Greek regions of Macedonia and Thessaly. Six sites are considered, including a substantial and previously unpublished dataset from Promachon (Macedonia). The analysis of the size and shape of the animals indicates great variation between sites and regions, suggestive of the co-existence of multiple styles of husbandry. The site of Sitagroi stands out for its large and robust cattle and sheep, probably a consequence of its environmental setting, as well as the dynamism of its cultural and economic connections. In Thessaly, despite the existence of inter-site connections documented through the material culture, different sites maintained their independence in terms of husbandry choices.

This paper examines the zooarchaeological evidence from six Basque towns (Bilbao, Vitoria-Gasteiz, SalvatierraeAgurain, Balmaseda, Ordu~ na and Durango), and compares it with historical written sources. The key aims are a better understanding of urban diet, the provisioning of meat to towns, and the relationship between town and country, in the 12the18th centuries. Taxonomic frequencies, kill-off patterns, butchery practices and biometrical data are examined in a diachronic perspective. The results reveal that, although there are some signs of economic specialization, patterns of urban consumption remained fairly stable. It is suggested that the strict taxation and legislation for meat supply and the ownership of livestock by urban elites meant that urban demand for meat was too tightly regulated to bring about substantial changes in the mechanisms of livestock breeding and supply. The economic system appears to have mainly been geared towards the socioeconomic needs of the countryside , despite the central role of some of the Basque towns in international trade.

The recording of tooth wear is essential for the investigation of age in zooarchaeological assemblages, but most tooth wear methodologies apply only to mandibular teeth, thereby neglecting potentially valuable maxillary data. The large sample of pig maxillary jaws and teeth recovered at Durrington Walls has provided the opportunity to design a new recording method for maxillary as well as mandibular jaws. Work on previously excavated animal bone material from Durrington Walls (Albarella and Payne, 2005) suggested the possibility of seasonal pig killing at the site, but the issue has not, until now, been explored in detail. This paper therefore has a dual purpose: to describe the new method for recording tooth wear on pig teeth; and to use the new information from both the mandibular and maxillary teeth to explore pig age at death and seasonality at Durrington Walls. The results provide evidence of differential deposition of pigs of different ages at Durrington Walls, with one midden context containing younger pigs brought to the site to provide meat for predominately winter-based feasting events, and other contexts containing remains of older pigs (mainly in their second year) deposited in both domestic and more public locales also predominantly in winter. The study highlights the usefulness of maxillary teeth for our understanding of past systems of pig exploitation as well as the desirability of recording their wear in animal bone assemblages.

This pilot study investigates the existence of seasonal movements of sheep – transhumance – in Iron Age Catalo-nia (NorthEastern Spain). The occurrence of seasonal movement of livestock between the coast and the interior, perhaps in relation to the Mediterranean market, was suggested for this area based on landscape and palynolog-ical studies. This hypothesis was tested on the basis of strontium, carbon and oxygen isotope analysis from seven sheep lower third molars. The evidence obtained suggests that the animals did not move across geological areas during the time of enamel mineralization. In addition, the paper provides valuable isotopic evidence that can be used in further studies.

Bird remains recovered from historical archaeological contexts are frequently dominated by chickens. Although domestic fowl was introduced in Italy from the 8th c. BC, it became widespread only in the Roman period, as a source of food but also as an animal used in ritual contexts. In medieval times the religious role of the domestic fowl declined or, even, disappeared, and the bird was exploited almost exclusively for food.
In the past, the analysis of this bird has been mainly focussed on taxonomic identification, while other important aspects such as sex ratio, selection of breeds, changes in size and management through time have been neglected.
The method of analysis of domestic fowl remains from archaeological sites proposed in this study is based on the experience acquired recording thousands of chicken bones. These specimens come from sites located in central Italy, with a chronology spanning from the Roman period to the Middle Ages.
The identification is based on the diagnostic zone method, purposely adapted to birds. The study of age classes is supported by biometrical analyses aimed to detect bone development in immature specimens. Sexing bird remains is based on the presence or absence of the spur, the development of medullary bone inside the marrow cavity of selected anatomical elements and biometrical data. Furthermore, breed selection and size changes were investigated using biometry.

Through time, birds have been intensely exploited as a source of meat, eggs, feathers and quills. While chicken (Gallus gallus) has played a dominant role as the key farmyard bird, other birds were also important, but the history of their breeding is poorly understood. Pigeon is considered to be among the earliest domestic birds but its importance diminished with the spread of the chicken. We know little about the times and modes of the domestication of duck and goose, as well as later developments in their husbandry. Unlike chicken, the challenge with the understanding of the domestication of these other species in Europe is that they have wild ancestor that are native to the region, and whose bones are difficult to distinguish from the domestic forms.
This research is focused on chicken, pigeon, goose and duck remains recovered from medieval sites in Italy. Relative frequencies, mortality pattern and sex indicators by period and site phase are analysed. At all sites, chicken is the most frequent domestic bird while goose importance increased in the course of the Middle Ages. Duck and pigeon remains, when recorded, represent a marginal occurrence. High frequencies of juvenile bones, often recorded at rural sites, seem to be related to local breeding and specialised forms of exploitation. While chickens were sometimes slaughtered when still young, geese were generally kept alive longer. Development of medullary bone and spur presence were both used to assess the sex ratio. The quantity of medullary bone in the hens’ lower limb bones has disclosed information about different forms of chicken management. Biometrical analyses are used to discriminate between breeds, as well as wild and domestic forms. In particular, duck and goose identifications were aided by the application of a new system developed by our research team.
This study shows how domestic birds can highlight social and economic differences in rural and urban sites from medieval Italy.

In this paper, the zooarchaeological evidence for different religious communities in medieval Spain is reviewed, through the analysis of species presence/absence and the carcass processing techniques (butchery marks and body parts). The potential and limitations of faunal remains to address issues related to identity and religious observance is addressed.

Course For more information, please email: zooarch-shortcourse@sheffield.ac.uk With sessions on British birds and the species most commonly found in archaeological sites, teaching will be delivered through hands-on practical activities, short lectures and case studies.

Dear colleagues
We are pleased to invite you to submit a paper proposal to the session entitled " The 'long' 16 th century: archaeological evidence for innovations in the rural world (technology, agriculture and husbandry) " (session number: # 75), that we are organising for the 23rd Annual Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists (EAA), which will be held in Maastricht (Netherlands), August 30 th-September 2 nd 2017. We invite you to submit your title and abstract until the 15 th of March, following the instructions that can be found at http://www.eaa2017maastricht.nl/ SESSION ABSTRACT During the 16th century, Europe shifted from being 'medieval' to being 'modern' because some crucial changes occurred in all aspects of life. Abundant documentary evidence has allowed historians to investigate some of these changes, such as the exploration of other continents, the opening of oceanic trade routes, the remarkable development of politics, science, philosophy, international law and art, and the Protestant Reformation. However, changes also occurred in the rural world, and, arguably, affected the character of human societies even more profoundly than the political and religious upheavals. In the period between the Black Death (14th century) and the Agricultural Revolution (18th century), unquestionably the countryside of Europe was transformed in both its appearance and practices. This session will analyse changes that occurred in the 16th century, as this is the time following the end of the Middle Ages, but earlier than the Agricultural Revolution as traditionally defined. Can we see the roots of rural world transformations already in the 16th century, or was this a time still more closely connected to medieval practices? We aim to bring together researchers from a variety of disciplines (zooarchaeology, archaeobotany, geoarchaeology, landscape archaeology, material culture studies, etc.) to investigate the nature of agricultural innovations that occurred in the rural world during the 'long' 16th century. This may include improvements in agriculture and animal husbandry, the introduction of new plant and animal species, and technological changes in the countryside. Although the session will focus on the archaeological evidence, the contribution of historians is most welcome.

Although domestic fowl is often found at Italian archaeological sites at least from the sixth century BC onwards, it became widespread only in the Roman period. Throughout the Middle Ages, chicken played an important role in the Italian food economy as attested by the substantial number of bones of this bird recovered from archaeological contexts. This study is focused on the identification of trends in chicken exploitation that can be linked to production and/or consumption. The analysis of bone assemblages shows an increase in the frequency of chickens from the 13th century onwards. In urban contexts, which reflect consumption rather than production, anatomical parts with a higher meat value are more frequent. Chickens were probably bred at rural sites, as attested by age and sex evidence. Early medieval chickens from Rome appear to have had the largest body size. The requirements of the market did not seem to have imposed an increase in chicken size in later centuries.