Colofon
TMA 56, 2017
28ste jaargang
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Inhoudsopgave
Artikelen / Articles
Graantransport en graanprijzen in Ramessidisch Egypte.
Het recto van P. Amiens en P. Baldwin gekwantiiceerd
Frits Heinrich & Paul van Pelt
1
Dietary reconstruction in Early Iron Age Greece
using carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis
Eleni Panagiotopoulou
13
Hongersnood, ziekte en demograie in de
Romeinse mediterrane wereld
Paul Erdkamp
18
Peperduur of gemeengoed?
Peperconsumptie in het Romeinse Rijk gekwantiiceerd
Frits Heinrich & Merit Hondelink
22
Fuel in ancient food production
Robyn Veal
32
Vinea uel arbustum? Wijnteelttechnieken in Romeins Italië
Dimitri Van Limbergen
38
Pompeii, a fully urban society: charting diachronic social
and economic changes in the environmental evidence
Charlene Murphy
45
The role of chicken in the medieval food system:
evidence from Central Italy
Chiara A. Corbino, Claudia Minniti,
Jacopo De Grossi Mazzorin & Umberto Albarella
50
‘Impressions’ of the Mamluk agricultural economy.
Archaeobotanical evidence from clay ovens (ṭābūn) at
Tall Ḥisbān (Jordan)
Annette M. Hansen, Bethany J. Walker & Frits Heinrich
58
English summaries
70
KvK: 41014777
TMA online:
– tijdschrit@mediterrane-archeologie.nl
– mediterrane-archeologie.nl
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Redactie:
Remco Bronkhorst (hoofdredacteur), Yannick
de Raaf, Tamara Dijkstra, Jord Hilbrants, Judith
Jurjens, Rian Lenting, Jorn Seubers, Simon
Speksnijder, Jan Ferco van der Weg, Caroline van
Toor, Theo Verlaan, Anne-Jan Wijnstok, Sarah
Willemsen, Evelien Witmer
Gasthoofdredacteuren:
Frits Heinrich & Annette M. Hansen
Adviesraad:
Prof. dr. P.A.J. Attema (RUG)
Prof. dr. G.J.M.L. Burgers (VU)
Prof. dr. R.F. Docter (UGent)
Prof. dr. E.M. Moormann (RU)
Dr. J. Pelgrom (KNIR)
Prof. dr. J. Poblome (KULeuven)
Prof. dr. M.J. Versluys (UL)
Dr. G.J.M. van Wijngaarden (UvA)
Ontwerp omslag: Evelien Witmer
Opmaak binnenwerk: Hannie Steegstra
TMA komt tot stand in samenwerking met
Barkhuis Publishing, Eelde
ISSN 0922-3312
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Recensies / Reviews
War and Society in Early Rome: from Warlords to Generals
Peter Attema
73
→
TMA jaargang 28, nr. 56
Vervolg Recensies / Reviews continued
Ricerche sui Villaggi nel Lazio dell’età Imperiale
alla Tarda Antichità
Gijs Tol
75
A Companion to Food in the Ancient World
Annette M. Hansen
78
Middle Egyptian Literature
Eight Literary Works of the Middle Kingdom
Judith Jurjens
81
Archaeology of Food – an Encyclopedia
Frits Heinrich
84
Roman military architecture on the frontiers:
armies and their architecture in Late Antiquity
Frank Beijaard
86
The Material Life of Roman Slaves
René Brandhof
89
Introducties / Introductions
Innovating objects. The impact of global connections
and the formation of the Roman Empire (ca. 200-30 BC)
Onderzoeksproject Vici (NWO, UL),
Miguel John Versluys (projectleider)
92
Tradities van macht in tijden van transitie. Romeinse macht in
veranderende samenlevingen (50 voor Christus - 565 na Christus)
Onderzoeksproject Vici (NWO, RU), Olivier Hekster (projectleider)
93
De impact van de bevolkingstoename op de rurale samenleving
in Magna Grecia gedurende de Hellenistische periode
Promotieonderzoek (RUG), Tineke Roovers
94
The role of chicken in the medieval food system:
evidence from Central Italy
Chiara A. Corbino, Claudia Minniti, Jacopo De Grossi Mazzorin
& Umberto Albarella
Introduction
Over the last decade the study of chicken in the archaeological context has received increased attention. Most
published studies have focused on a number of core sub1
jects: the identiication of the chicken’s wild ancestor, its
2
spread from Asia to Europe, the earliest introductions of
3
it into Europe and the irst evidence of intense economic
4
exploitation.
It is commonly accepted that the domestic chicken
originated from the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), which
was irst domesticated in eastern Asia, perhaps through
5
multiple, independent domestication events. The timing
of the initial domestication, as well as its spread to the
Middle East and Europe, is still unclear.
In Italy, chicken remains are mentioned in contexts
as early as the ninth century BC, although these require
6
veriication. By the sixth century BC, however, the oc7
currence of chicken in Italy is clearly attested. In the
Classical period, domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) is
oten associated with funerary and ritual contexts. The
gradual increase of its archaeological representation
8
from the fourth century BC to the sixth century AD,
indicates that chickens only became widespread in the
Roman period, when they began to be exploited as a
valuable meat source. This increase is also expressed in
a number of well-known literary sources.
Roman authors, such as Columella and Pliny the Elder
(irst century AD), mention the occurrence of a diversity
of chicken breeds and management practices. Although
chicken was exploited as a source of food in the Middle
Ages, there are no medieval written sources detailing the
husbandry practices adopted at that time in Italy. Shits
in size throughout the Middle Ages, likely linked to differential management strategies, have been identiied
9
in Rome. This could indicate the occurrence of changes in human-chicken interactions from the Early to the
Late Middle Ages in Italy. This paper aims to investigate
husbandry practices adopted at rural and urban sites in
Central Italy and the importance of chicken in the Central
Italian medieval food economy.
Materials and methods
10
In total 26 ‘period sites’ from 16 sites have been analysed and, in some cases, re-analysed (see igure 1 and
table 1). They are all dated between the fourth and ifteenth century AD and are located in the Central Italian
regions of Tuscany and Lazio. As many as 7,120 chicken
remains have been identiied from those period sites and
are included in this study (see table 1). Both sieved and
hand-collected assemblages are considered in this paper,
though a likely recovery bias needs to be evaluated in the
interpretation of the latter.
Chicken percentages are calculated out of the total
11
number of chicken, pig and sheep/goat specimens.
Cattle and horses are excluded because of their very
large bones, which are hardly comparable to the much
smaller chicken bones, and dogs because they do not represent typical consumption animals. Since caprines and
pigs have much larger bones, though not to the same extent as cattle and horse, chickens are likely to be underestimated, particularly in hand-collected assemblages.
Anatomical frequencies are based on the Minimum
Number of Elements (MNE). It is calculated by matching large fragments of the same anatomical elements according to side, age and preservation. A speciic number
Figure 1. Map of Tuscany and Lazio showing the location of the
sites discussed in the text. See table 1 for further details (igure
authors).
Chiara A. Corbino et al.
The role of chicken in the medieval food system
Table 1. Considered sites and source of data (see igure 1; table authors).
ID Number Site name
1
Colosseum
2
Castiglione
3
Cencelle
4
Area of Colosseum
5
Crypta Balbi
6
Mola di Monte Gelato
7
Palazzo Vitelleschi
8
Piazza Dante
9
Piazza della Signoria
10
Rocca di Campiglia
11
Rocca Ricciarda
12
13
14
15
San Genesio
Santa Cecilia
Santa Severa
Torraccia di Chiusi
16
Via de’Castellani (VC),
Biblioteca Magliabechiana
(BM)
Location
Rome
Rieti
Civitavecchia, Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
Tarquinia, Viterbo
Pisa
Florence
Campiglia Marittima,
Grosseto
Loro Ciufenna,
Arezzo
San Miniato, Pisa
Rome
Santa Severa, Rome
San Gimignano,
Siena
Florence
Region
Lazio
Lazio
Lazio
Lazio
Lazio
Lazio
Lazio
Tuscany
Tuscany
Tuscany
Reference
Bedini 2002.
Minniti 2009.
Minniti 2009.
Delino & Minniti 2008; Minniti unpublished.
De Grossi Mazzorin & Minniti 2001; Minniti 2005.
King 1997; West 1997.
Clark et al. 1989.
Sorrentino 1993.
Corridi 1995.
Salvadori 2003; Corbino 2010.
Tuscany
Corbino 2009; Corbino 2010.
Tuscany
Lazio
Lazio
Tuscany
Buonincontri 2012; Buonincontri web.
Minniti 2005.
Fatucci & Cerilli 2013; Fatucci & Cerilli 2015.
Corbino unpublished.
Tuscany
Corbino 2010.
Figure 2. Relative frequencies
of sheep/goat (S/G), pig (P) and
chicken (C) (see data in table
2). Chart A plots the mean of
the means of individual sites
per period. Chart B plots the
mean of the total NISP for
each period. All sites contribute
equally to chart A regardless of
sample size; conversely, in chart
B, the contribution of each site
is directly proportional to the
sample size of its assemblage
(igure authors).
51
TMA jaargang 28, nr. 56
of bones from the wing (humerus, ulna and carpometacarpus) and leg (femur, tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus)
was selected to assess the relative occurrence of each
body part. Age is established on the basis of the occurrence of porosity of the articular ends of long bones,
which allows the recognition of immature individuals.
All femurs were drilled into using a grinding stone
bit in order to determine the amount of medullary bone
in the marrow cavity. Medullary bone is a characteristic
feature of laying hens as the calcium deposit is needed
to generate the eggshell. Long bones of mature chickens
have been measured following the methodology of Von
12
13
den Driesch. A size index scaling technique was used
to maximize the potential of metrical data and to compare diferent measurements with each other.
carpometacarpus, femur, tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus. Other bones, such as vertebrae and phalanges, were
disregarded because of their low diagnostic value. A bone
15
16
atlas and skeletal reference collections were used for
the identiication of the specimens.
Data from the literature
Published data from 14 period sites have also been included in this analysis (see table 2). Though counting
criteria are generally unspeciied, it seems that in most
cases no selection of speciic anatomical parts was carried out. The only quantiication system generally provided in publications is the NISP and this has therefore
been used in this paper for inter-site comparison.
Results
Re-analysed assemblages
Relative taxonomic frequencies based on NISP (see table
2) show a substantial increase of chicken in assemblages
of late medieval sites, which corresponds to a general
decrease of pig starting in the 13th century. However, in
some cases, pig values are also high in late medieval assemblages, probably because of speciic food preferences.
Mean percentages by period (see igure 2) conirm an increase in the occurrence of chicken in the Late Middle
Ages. Two diferent calculations of NISP frequencies
12 of the period sites considered here, amounting to
5,230 chicken remains, were directly re-analysed by us
to obtain consistent taxonomic, age-at-death and sex evi14
dence. Nine of these assemblages derive from sieved
contexts, and are therefore less afected by recovery bias.
Only selected anatomical parts were included in the
Number of Identiied Specimens (NISP) count for each
site: scapula, coracoid, sternum, humerus, ulna, radius,
Table 2. Relative percentage of sheep/goat (%S/G), pig (%P) and chicken (%C) at medieval Italian sites. EM = Early medieval. MM = Midmedieval. LM = Late medieval. NISP represents the number of identiied bone fragments of sheep/goat, pig and chicken. Assemblages composed
of a NISP fewer than 100 have been excluded (table authors).
Site name
Mola di Monte Gelato
Torraccia di Chiusi
San Genesio
Crypta Balbi
Crypta Balbi
Crypta Balbi
Passaggio di Commodo (Colosseum)
Mola di Monte Gelato
Piazza della Signoria
Chronology
4th-6th
5th-6th
6th-7th
7th
8th
9th
7th-9th
9th
EM
Site type
rural
rural
urban
urban
urban
urban
urban
rural
urban
Mid-medieval
Piazzale del Colosseum
Castiglione
Mola di Monte Gelato
Mola di Monte Gelato
San Genesio
Piazza Dante
Colosseum - ambiente 36
11th
11th
11th
12th
11th-12th
10th-AD 1250
11th-13th
Late medieval
S.Cecilia
Rocca di Campiglia
Piazza della Signoria (pozzo)
Palazzo Vitelleschi
Santa Severa
Cencelle
Palazzo Vitelleschi
Rocca di Campiglia
Via de’Castellani (VC), Biblioteca
Magliabechiana (BM)
Rocca Ricciarda
Early medieval
%S/G
37
32
35
36
37
36
35
43
20
%P
58
59
48
57
61
63
52
56
65
%C
5
8
17
7
3
1
13
1
16
NISP
479
332
139
3247
3005
3162
170
217
1165
urban
rural-military
rural
rural
urban
urban
urban
47
24
35
46
43
47
39
47
64
55
50
53
47
45
6
12
10
4
3
7
17
266
7320
497
152
116
931
1037
12th-13th
13th
13th
12th-14th
13th-14th
13th-14th
14th
14th
13th-15th
urban-religious
rural
urban
urban-nobles
rural
urban
urban-nobles
rural-military
urban
57
30
76
20
52
37
40
58
80
29
30
21
43
35
49
30
20
16
14
40
3
37
13
14
29
22
4
2883
507
657
1972
4530
2305
8918
986
1484
14th-15th
rural-military
32
52
16
1007
52
The role of chicken in the medieval food system
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
Chiara A. Corbino et al.
100%
T. di Chiusi 5th-6th
Rural
Castiglione 11th
Rocca di Campiglia 13th
Rocca di Campiglia 14th
Rocca Ricciarda 14th-15th
Crypta Balbi 7th
Crypta Balbi 8th
Crypta Balbi 9th
Urban
Colosseum 7th-9th
Colosseum 11th
S.Cecilia 12th-13th
Cencelle 13th-14th
Palazzo Vitelleschi 14th
Figure 3. Frequencies of wing
(humerus, ulna, carpometacarpus)
and leg (femur, tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus) bones based on MNE
(igure authors).
VC,BM (Florence) 13th-15th
Wing
0%
20%
Leg
40%
60%
100%
Rural
M. Monte Gelato 4th-6th
T. di Chiusi 5th-6th
Castiglione 11th
M. Monte Gelato 11th
Rocca di Campiglia 13th
Rocca di Campiglia 14th
Rocca Ricciarda 14th-15th
80%
Urban
Crypta Balbi 7th
Crypta Balbi 8th
Crypta Balbi 9th
Colosseum 7th-9th
Colosseum 11th
S.Cecilia 12th-13th
Cencelle 13th-14th
Palazzo Vitelleschi 14th
VC,BM (Florence) 13th-15th
%Immature
Figure 4. Frequencies of immature
and mature bones based on NISP
(igure authors).
%Mature
provided consistent results with chicken almost doubling in frequency in the late medieval period. Some
high status contexts dating to the Late Middle Ages,
such as Campiglia and Palazzo Vitelleschi, show particularly high proportions of chickens. Nevertheless, by this
time chicken was common and widespread, and therefore
unlikely to be an elite food; it is roughly equally represented in urban and rural contexts.
Chicken leg bones are the most abundant at all sites
(see igure 3). There are no obvious taphonomic reasons
why this should be the case; thus, the preference for leg
bones is more likely to be related to food choices. This
is because the quantity of meat in legs is higher than in
wings. Similar proportions in the occurrence of wing and
leg bones could be due to local breeding and consumption of chickens, while higher frequencies of leg bones
could indicate preferential consumption of items purchased from the market. Thus, it is unsurprising that at
rural sites, where chicken was likely to have been locally
bred, the percentages of wing bones are generally higher (ca. 40%) than at urban sites (ca. 20-30%). Three late
medieval urban sites show higher proportions of wing
bones, which could indicate an increase in chicken urban breeding at that time, though diferences in butchery
practices are also possible.
53
TMA jaargang 28, nr. 56
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
T. di Chiusi 5th-6th
Castiglione 11th
Rural
Rocca di Campiglia 13th
Rocca di Campiglia 14th
Rocca Ricciarda 14th-15th
Crypta Balbi 7th
Crypta Balbi 8th
Crypta Balbi 9th
Urban
S.Cecilia 12th-13th
Cencelle 13th-14th
Palazzo Vitelleschi 14th
VC,BM (Florence) 13th-15th
%Present
Figure 5. Frequencies of femurs
with medullary bone (igure
authors).
%Absent
Figure 6. Comparison of chicken size between sites using a scaling index technique (log ratio). The standard (‘0’) is represented by a contemporary 3 year-old harco breed hen. The following measurements are included: humerus (GL - greatest length, Bp - breadth of the proximal end,
Bd - breadth of the distal end), ulna (GL, Bp), carpometacarpus (GL, Bp), femur (Lm, Bp, Bd), tibiotarsus (GL, Bd) and tarsometatarsus (GL, Bp,
Bd). Arrow: mean; x-axis: log value; y-axis: number of specimens (igure authors).
54
The role of chicken in the medieval food system
Mortality data are only available for the re-analysed
assemblages; the site of Mola di Monte Gelato represents the only exception. The occurrence of immature
bones through time is higher at rural sites, where chickens were likely to have been locally bred (see igure 4).
However, a considerable increase in young individuals
is attested at urban sites from the 13th century onward.
To some extent such an increase can be associated with
the nature of the site occupation. The sites concerned are
Santa Cecilia (a religious-urban context), Cencelle (where
chicken bones derive from a productive urban area) and
the Palazzo Vitelleschi at Tarquinia (14th century contexts; an aluent urban household). The high proportions
of immature bones in these three period sites seem to
point in the direction of local husbandry of chicken in
urban contexts.
The occurrence of medullary bone in femurs indicates that some of the hens were ‘in lay’ when they died.
Frequencies of femurs with this calcium deposit are considerably higher at urban sites (see igure 5). There are
several possible explanations for this pattern. One possibility is that there was a greater emphasis on egg production at rural sites, and therefore a greater reluctance
in slaughtering laying hens for local consumption.
Biometrical analysis shows that some of the largest
chickens are found in early medieval contexts from the
Crypta Balbi (Rome). In the Middle and Late Middle
Ages, the size of chicken appears to be fairly homogenous, though Florence and Rocca Ricciarda, which are
the latest in date, have slightly larger individuals.
Butchery marks are infrequent, which is to be expected as the relatively small size of the chicken body means
that limited dismemberment is needed. Evidence for
butchery occurred at only nine sites. In total 150 bones
displayed cut marks. Most common are chop and cut
marks on articulations (68%) and in particular on the distal tibiotarsus (36% of the total), probably a consequence
of the dressing of the carcass. Burning marks are also uncommon (50 from 9 sites) and, when present, they mainly
occur on wing and leg bones.
Chiara A. Corbino et al.
Domestic fowl was bred at rural sites throughout the
Middle Ages, but from the 13th century onward, anatomical parts and age data point to an increase in chicken
breeding in urban contexts too.
At rural sites, hens were probably mainly exploited
for egg production and were preferentially slaughtered
when they were not laying eggs. In fact, in a traditional
outdoor poultry farm, it is only convenient to kill hens
when their egg productivity has declined. Conversely,
in towns there is greater evidence for the consumption
of hens that had been slaughtered when ‘in lay’. These
must have been bred in the urban environment or speciically slaughtered to be sold in the urban market. Egg
production probably occurred mainly in the countryside,
though the urban population would have acquired them
through the market.
The variation that we have seen in chicken size at different sites is not surprising considering the well-known
existence of distinct chicken breeds that are mentioned
by Roman written sources. We know less about medieval
chicken types, but it is likely that some of the diversity recorded for the Roman period was maintained and, in fact,
may even have increased. It is interesting that the largest chickens that are discussed in this paper derive from
early medieval phases. The evidence is still too scanty to
suggest an overall decrease in chicken size in the course
of the Middle Ages, but it is noteworthy that an increase
in chicken frequency is not relected in an equivalent increase in size. Chicken sizes probably relected the needs
of diferent markets, and it is possible that a larger size
was not necessarily regarded as desirable.
Although this research merely represents a starting
point in the study of chicken exploitation in the Italian
Middle Ages, this paper has shown that the available evidence, with all its limitations, has the potential to inform
us about important aspects of life in the Middle Ages and
changes that occurred in the course of this period.
Acknowledgements
This research was inancially supported by the 7th
Framework Programme, Marie Curie IEF action. We are
grateful to Jacopo Moggi Cecchi, Edoardo Borzatti and
Marzia Fabiano for providing access to the bird bone
reference collection at the University of Florence and to
Antonio Tagliacozzo and Monica Gala for granting access
to the collections of the Museo Nazionale Preistorico ed
Etnograico “L. Pigorini” (Rome, Italy) and the Istituto
Italiano di Paleontologia Umana (Rome, Italy).
Conclusions
Our evidence indicates an increased importance of chicken as a food source in late medieval Central Italy. From
the beginning of the 13th century, important social and
economic changes occurred in Europe. In Central Italy a
rapid demographic growth was accompanied by the expansion of agriculture, crat manufacturing, as well as
trade and bank activities. The Black Death of the 14th
century caused a demographic collapse. Nonetheless,
businesses recovered rapidly, wages increased, and the
17
lifestyle of the lower and middle classes improved. This
probably led to an increased demand for higher quality
food, such as meat. Chicken meat would have provided
a welcome addition to staple meats such as beef, pork
and mutton.
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56
The role of chicken in the medieval food system
Chiara A. Corbino et al.
the Bronze Age to the Roman period. His research also
includes the integration of zooarchaeology with other
archaeological disciplines. He is currently president of
the Italian ArchaeoZoological Association (A.I.A.Z.).
Storey, A.A., Athens, J.S., Bryant, D., Carson, M., Emery, K. et
al. 2012, “Investigating the global dispersal of chickens
in prehistory using ancient mitochondrial DNA signatures”, PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 7, e39171.
Tomek, T. & Bocheński, Z.M. 2009, A key for the identiication of domestic bird bones in Europe: Galliformes and
Columbiformes, Institute of Systematics and Evolution of
Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow.
Von den Driesch, A. 1976, A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites, Peabody Museum
Bulletin, vol. 1, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and
Ethnology, Cambridge.
West, B. 1997, “The bird bones” in Excavation at the Mola di
Monte Gelato, (eds.) T.W. Potter & A.C. King, pp. 403-407.
West, B. & Zhou, B.X. 1998, “Did chickens go North? New
evidence for domestication”, Journal of Archaeological
Science, vol. 15, pp. 515-533.
Umberto Albarella (u.albarella@sheield.ac.uk) is a
Reader in Zooarchaeology at the University of Sheield
(UK). He studied Natural Sciences at the University of
Naples (Italy) and obtained his PhD from the University
of Durham (UK). He has also worked at the Universities of
Lecce (Italy), Birmingham (UK) and Durham (UK), as well
as for English Heritage. His main areas of research include domestication, pastoralism, ethnography, husbandry innovations and the integration of diferent strands of
archaeological research. His work is predominantly based
in Britain and Italy, but he has also worked in Armenia,
Greece, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, France,
Spain and Portugal. Within archaeology, he has been an
advocate for global and social justice.
About the authors
Chiara A. Corbino (chiara.corbino@gmail.com) is a postdoctoral fellow (Marie Curie IEF) at the Department of
Archaeology, University of Sheield (UK). She obtained
her PhD from the University of Siena (Italy). Her research
focuses on animal husbandry, bird exploitation, taphonomy and climate change. She is the senior zooarchaeologist at several international research projects in Italy and
Jordan. Her main period of interest is the Middle Ages.
In the last six years, she has focused on the study of bird
remains from the Roman period to the end of the Middle
Ages in Italy and England.
Endnotes
1 Miao et al. 2013; Peters et al. 2016.
2 West & Zhou 1998; Storey et al. 2012.
3 Serjeantson 2009: pp. 268-273.
4 De Cupere et al. 2005; Perry-Gal et al. 2015.
5 Kanginakudru et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2006.
6 De Grossi Mazzorin 2005: p. 352.
7 De Grossi Mazzorin 2005: pp. 352-353.
Claudia Minniti (claudia.minniti@unisalento.it) is a
Research Associate at the Dipartimento di Beni Culturali
of the University of Salento (Lecce, Italy). Previously
she worked as a Marie Curie Fellow at the University of
Sheield (UK). Her research interests include the study
of animal remains from archaeological sites with an integration of various disciplines (i.e. history, ethnography,
zoology, and ethology). Her work has resulted in over
90 papers in national and international journals, conference proceedings and books, including her book Hunting,
Animal exploitation and Social Complexity in Central Italy
between the Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age.
8 De Grossi Mazzorin & Minniti 2009: tab. 15, p. 53.
9 De Grossi Mazzorin 2005: pp. 355-357.
10 The 26 ‘period sites’ are showed in table 2; they all derive from
the 16 sites listed in table 1. For ‘period site’ we mean the assemblage from a particular chronological period of a site.
11 Maltby 1998: p. 406.
12 Von den Driesch 1976.
13 Meadow 1999.
14 Assemblages from Castiglione, Cencelle, Crypta Balbi,
Palazzo Vitelleschi (14th century), Rocca di Campiglia, Rocca
Ricciarda, Santa Cecilia, Torraccia di Chiusi, via de Castellani
and Biblioteca Magliabechiana have been re-analysed. For
speciic information about each context see table 2.
Jacopo De Grossi Mazzorin (jacopo.degrossi@unisalento.it)
is a Lecturer in Archaeozoology at the Dipartimento di
Beni Culturali of the University of Salento (Lecce, Italy).
His work has resulted in over 180 scientiic papers. He is
involved in numerous Italian and international archaeological excavations in the Mediterranean. He is specialised in the study of faunal remains from archaeological
sites and their cultural interpretation, mainly dating from
15 Tomek & Bocheński 2009.
16 The bird bone reference collections used to identify the chicken remains are those held at: the Department of Biology at the
University of Florence (Italy), the Department of Archaeology
at the University of Sheield (UK), the Museo Nazionale
Preistorico ed Etnograico “L. Pigorini” (Rome, Italy) and the
Istituto Italiano di Paleontologia Umana (Rome, Italy).
17 Goldthwaite 1984: pp. 54-57.
57