Sr/ 86 Sr isotope analysis was performed on 45 cattle teeth, 5 sheep/goat teeth and 2 pig teeth f... more Sr/ 86 Sr isotope analysis was performed on 45 cattle teeth, 5 sheep/goat teeth and 2 pig teeth from two archaeological sites in the Netherlands, dating to the Iron Age and Roman period. This makes it one of the largest strontium isotope projects focusing on animals from the Netherlands-to date. An integrated approach was taken, combining the strontium results with those from archaeology and zooarchaeology. Mobility of cattle in the Iron Age is demonstrated for five of the 23 analysed samples from the rural settlement of Houten-Castellum by strontium isotope analysis. Three animals travelled over considerable distances (over 150 km) to Houten and oxygen and carbon stable isotope values support a non-local origin for one of these animals. There is little evidence for incoming animals at this site during the Roman period with only one animal recording a non-local strontium isotope signature. In contrast, strontium isotopes indicate at least four different geographic origins for livestock in the Roman town of Heerlen, with none of the cattle being local. The results highlight the differing behaviour in the two sites. Whereas for a rural settlement like Houten, the Iron Age influx of animals might be explained by gift exchange, trade or cattle raids, it is likely that the flow of traded livestock during the Roman Period would go from rural settlement to towns and army camps. Heerlen represented the destination of animals derived from the surrounding areas to supply an active Roman town.
This paper presents a zooarchaeological analysis from the site of Spolverino (southern Tuscany, I... more This paper presents a zooarchaeological analysis from the site of Spolverino (southern Tuscany, Italy). Archaeological excavations have uncovered a complex stratigraphy dated from the Roman Imperial period to Late Antiquity (late 1st- early 6th centuries AD). The industrial function of the site in Imperial times is partially reflected in the nature of the faunal assemblage. In Late Antiquity, Spolverino lost its original manufacturing functions, as many of the workshops were abandoned; our evidence, however, suggests that some livestock was kept, probably managed by a restricted group of people still living in that area. Some hunting was practiced throughout the occupation but it increased in the later periods. Remarkable, in Late Antiquity, is the occurrence of the fallow deer, an introduced species, rare in Roman contexts.
The Archaeology of Human-Bird Interactions. A volume in honour of Dale Serjeantson. Volume 2, 2022
The chicken (Gallus domesticus) originates from the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), a bird found... more The chicken (Gallus domesticus) originates from the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), a bird found in south and southeast Asia. The timing of the initial domestication, as well as its spread to western Asia and Europe, are still unclear. In Italy, the species was likely to have been introduced in the early Iron Age, though the precise chronology of this event is hitherto unconfirmed. By the 6th-5th century BC, chicken remains occur at several Italian sites. Probably, the bird was originally raised for its symbolic value rather than for food, as its presence in early and mid-Iron Age cultic archaeological contexts suggests. We have re-analysed remains identified as 'chicken' from a cinerary hut urn found at Montecucco in central Italy during a 19th century archaeological investigation, to verify identification and establish an ante quem date for the introduction of the chicken in Italy. The analysis of these remains, combined with a review of additional zooarchaeological and iconographic evidence, has allowed us to push back the date of the earliest presence of this bird in Italy to at least the first half of the 9th century BC. This has also relevance for our understanding of the dynamics of chicken diffusion in the rest of Europe.
Sheep, and to a lesser extent goat, pastoralism was a central component of the economy of medieva... more Sheep, and to a lesser extent goat, pastoralism was a central component of the economy of medieval Sicily. Unlike the Byzantine period (6 th-early 9 th c. AD), when sheep/goat were mainly raised for their wool, husbandry strategies were much more generalised during the Arab occupation (9 th-11 th c. AD). In this latter period, caprines were equally exploited for meat, dairy products and wool. Biometrical analyses indicate an increase in sheep size in the Arab period, which is probably a consequence of an interest in maximising outputs. This phenomenon can be interpreted as a component of the broader changes associated with the so-called Arab Agricultural Revolution. In the Norman/Aragonese period (11 th-late 13 th c. AD), a further improvement in sheep size indicates a continuity of the animal husbandry strategies initiated by the Arabs. In this period, sheep/goat culling profiles suggest the existence of a more specialised economy focused on meat and, to a lesser extent, wool production.
Mandibular tooth wear patterns are important in zooarchaeological research as they can be used as... more Mandibular tooth wear patterns are important in zooarchaeological research as they can be used as a record of age at death. Age profile comparisons between different archaeological assemblages, therefore, rest on the assumption that tooth wear rates are consistent across groups. Consequently, Salvagno et al. [Journal of Archaeological Science, 127, pp. 1-17 (2021)] recently devised a method to determine relative tooth wear rate (TWR) of pig molars and assess the comparability of archaeological kill-off patterns. Their method quantifies the relative tooth wear rate between two adjacent mandibular molars and uses this to calculate the average wear rate (AWR) of an archaeological population. This paper adapts their method for use on cattle molars, to evaluate whether differences in relative tooth wear rates both within, and between, different archaeological cattle assemblages may affect age estimations. The method is applied to two case studies: Iron Age and Roman assemblages from Elms Farm, Heybridge, UK and Houten-Castellum, Netherlands. These are compared to two outgroups: a collection of European aurochs data, and a modern cattle assemblage from Germany. The method is additionally tested across species, by comparing cattle and pig relative tooth wear rates from Heybridge. Methodological considerations regarding the use of scoring systems to assess wear rate are identified and discussed. The potential causes of variation in tooth wear rates-such as diet, environmental inclusions, dental abnormalities, and genetic variation-are also considered. This study demonstrates the ease and affordability with which the tooth wear rate method can be employed. The results provide no evidence to suggest that comparisons of cattle age profiles between the Iron Age and Roman period at Heybridge or Houten-Castellum may be significantly compromised. However, differences in relative tooth wear rate were found between these two sites, and when comparing them to aurochs and modern outgroups. On this basis, it is suggested that caution be used when comparing kill-off patterns from different archaeological cattle assemblages, and that this methodology be employed routinely to increase the reliability of archaeological interpretations.
The Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) is currently absent as a regular breeder in Britain and its status as a... more The Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) is currently absent as a regular breeder in Britain and its status as a native species has been debated. Its occurrence in the Pleistocene of Britain is sparse but uncontroversial, whereas its Holocene presence rests on very few ambiguous findings. Of these, a specimen from Demen's Dale (Derbyshire) originally attributed to the Mesolithic period is the most important. A re-evaluation of this bone (tarsometatarsus) is presented in this paper. Although its identification as an Eagle Owl is confirmed, radiocarbon dating suggests that the bird rather lived in the Late Pleistocene. On the basis of the current evidence, there are no Holocene remains of the Eagle Owl in the archaeological and fossil record of Britain and the native status of this species remains unconfirmed.
Cattle are the dominant species in most archaeological sites in the Netherlands during the Iron A... more Cattle are the dominant species in most archaeological sites in the Netherlands during the Iron Age and Roman period. However, there are differences in the relative importance of cattle and in how cattle were managed. The aim of this paper is to find out which changes in cattle husbandry occurred between the Iron Age and Roman period, and whether these changes are related to introduced Roman practices. For this study, the Netherlands was divided into four regions, of which the northern region lies outside the Roman Empire. This allows a comparison of regions within and outside the Roman Empire and the potential identification of differential economic developments. First, we looked at diachronic changes and regional differences in the relative proportion of cattle compared to the other main domestic species. Second, data on slaughter ages were used to draw conclusions about the main product cattle were kept for: milk, meat or traction. Next, biometric data were used to investigate sex ratios of cattle, which – combined with mortality profiles – inform about management practices. Finally, biometric data were analysed using the log size index method to trace diachronic changes and regional differences in cattle size. A size increase and the growing role of cattle for traction and as meat providers in towns is also seen in other parts of the northwestern provinces. These changes can directly be related to the Roman occupation and the demand for meat and other animal products.
This study contributes to reconstruct the socioeconomic dynamics of change at the Roman-Early Ang... more This study contributes to reconstruct the socioeconomic dynamics of change at the Roman-Early Anglo-Saxon transition in Britain through zooarchaeological analysis. Contemporary assemblages from the nearby European mainland are used to provide a term of comparison. The results indicate that typical Roman husbandry practices survived into fourth century Britain: the animal economy focussed on cattle, livestock improvements, and surplus production, which allowed to feed the taxation cycle and to supply the army and town dwellers; on the other hand, the zooarchaeological evidence highlights substantial changes in the aims and scale of animal exploitation in the post-Roman period. Such discontinuity demonstrates the key role formerly played by the Roman state in shaping local animal economies and in integrating food production practices throughout the northwestern provinces. At the same time, the more generalized animal husbandry strategies of post-Roman settlements respond well to the needs of self-sufficient communities. Cattle decreased in size, as large, robust animals were no longer needed; on the other hand, the large size of sheep and other domesticates, improved in Roman times, benefitted Early Anglo-Saxon herders, and were often maintained. This evidence suggests that post-Roman communities did not simply cope with adverse economic conditions but reacted appropriately to the new circumstances.
This book presents a survey of world archaeology, from the point of view of animal remain studies... more This book presents a survey of world archaeology, from the point of view of animal remain studies. It can be considered as a showcase for world zooarchaeology. Forty-eight chapters written by researchers from twenty-five countries discuss archaeological investigations in five different continents. The geographic range covers the Arctic as well as the Tropics, islands and continental land masses, marine shores, forests, hills, and mountains. Human interactions with many different creatures—ranging from mammals to birds, fishes, and molluscs—are discussed, and in a great variety of ecological and cultural contexts. Methodological approaches are also diverse, as they are chosen according to the themes and research questions discussed in individual chapters. The full range of zooarchaeological methods is on display, but also integration with evidence deriving from sister disciplines, such as history, ethnography, zoology, palaeontology, and biochemistry. A methodological glossary helps ...
Sr/ 86 Sr isotope analysis was performed on 45 cattle teeth, 5 sheep/goat teeth and 2 pig teeth f... more Sr/ 86 Sr isotope analysis was performed on 45 cattle teeth, 5 sheep/goat teeth and 2 pig teeth from two archaeological sites in the Netherlands, dating to the Iron Age and Roman period. This makes it one of the largest strontium isotope projects focusing on animals from the Netherlands-to date. An integrated approach was taken, combining the strontium results with those from archaeology and zooarchaeology. Mobility of cattle in the Iron Age is demonstrated for five of the 23 analysed samples from the rural settlement of Houten-Castellum by strontium isotope analysis. Three animals travelled over considerable distances (over 150 km) to Houten and oxygen and carbon stable isotope values support a non-local origin for one of these animals. There is little evidence for incoming animals at this site during the Roman period with only one animal recording a non-local strontium isotope signature. In contrast, strontium isotopes indicate at least four different geographic origins for livestock in the Roman town of Heerlen, with none of the cattle being local. The results highlight the differing behaviour in the two sites. Whereas for a rural settlement like Houten, the Iron Age influx of animals might be explained by gift exchange, trade or cattle raids, it is likely that the flow of traded livestock during the Roman Period would go from rural settlement to towns and army camps. Heerlen represented the destination of animals derived from the surrounding areas to supply an active Roman town.
This paper presents a zooarchaeological analysis from the site of Spolverino (southern Tuscany, I... more This paper presents a zooarchaeological analysis from the site of Spolverino (southern Tuscany, Italy). Archaeological excavations have uncovered a complex stratigraphy dated from the Roman Imperial period to Late Antiquity (late 1st- early 6th centuries AD). The industrial function of the site in Imperial times is partially reflected in the nature of the faunal assemblage. In Late Antiquity, Spolverino lost its original manufacturing functions, as many of the workshops were abandoned; our evidence, however, suggests that some livestock was kept, probably managed by a restricted group of people still living in that area. Some hunting was practiced throughout the occupation but it increased in the later periods. Remarkable, in Late Antiquity, is the occurrence of the fallow deer, an introduced species, rare in Roman contexts.
The Archaeology of Human-Bird Interactions. A volume in honour of Dale Serjeantson. Volume 2, 2022
The chicken (Gallus domesticus) originates from the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), a bird found... more The chicken (Gallus domesticus) originates from the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), a bird found in south and southeast Asia. The timing of the initial domestication, as well as its spread to western Asia and Europe, are still unclear. In Italy, the species was likely to have been introduced in the early Iron Age, though the precise chronology of this event is hitherto unconfirmed. By the 6th-5th century BC, chicken remains occur at several Italian sites. Probably, the bird was originally raised for its symbolic value rather than for food, as its presence in early and mid-Iron Age cultic archaeological contexts suggests. We have re-analysed remains identified as 'chicken' from a cinerary hut urn found at Montecucco in central Italy during a 19th century archaeological investigation, to verify identification and establish an ante quem date for the introduction of the chicken in Italy. The analysis of these remains, combined with a review of additional zooarchaeological and iconographic evidence, has allowed us to push back the date of the earliest presence of this bird in Italy to at least the first half of the 9th century BC. This has also relevance for our understanding of the dynamics of chicken diffusion in the rest of Europe.
Sheep, and to a lesser extent goat, pastoralism was a central component of the economy of medieva... more Sheep, and to a lesser extent goat, pastoralism was a central component of the economy of medieval Sicily. Unlike the Byzantine period (6 th-early 9 th c. AD), when sheep/goat were mainly raised for their wool, husbandry strategies were much more generalised during the Arab occupation (9 th-11 th c. AD). In this latter period, caprines were equally exploited for meat, dairy products and wool. Biometrical analyses indicate an increase in sheep size in the Arab period, which is probably a consequence of an interest in maximising outputs. This phenomenon can be interpreted as a component of the broader changes associated with the so-called Arab Agricultural Revolution. In the Norman/Aragonese period (11 th-late 13 th c. AD), a further improvement in sheep size indicates a continuity of the animal husbandry strategies initiated by the Arabs. In this period, sheep/goat culling profiles suggest the existence of a more specialised economy focused on meat and, to a lesser extent, wool production.
Mandibular tooth wear patterns are important in zooarchaeological research as they can be used as... more Mandibular tooth wear patterns are important in zooarchaeological research as they can be used as a record of age at death. Age profile comparisons between different archaeological assemblages, therefore, rest on the assumption that tooth wear rates are consistent across groups. Consequently, Salvagno et al. [Journal of Archaeological Science, 127, pp. 1-17 (2021)] recently devised a method to determine relative tooth wear rate (TWR) of pig molars and assess the comparability of archaeological kill-off patterns. Their method quantifies the relative tooth wear rate between two adjacent mandibular molars and uses this to calculate the average wear rate (AWR) of an archaeological population. This paper adapts their method for use on cattle molars, to evaluate whether differences in relative tooth wear rates both within, and between, different archaeological cattle assemblages may affect age estimations. The method is applied to two case studies: Iron Age and Roman assemblages from Elms Farm, Heybridge, UK and Houten-Castellum, Netherlands. These are compared to two outgroups: a collection of European aurochs data, and a modern cattle assemblage from Germany. The method is additionally tested across species, by comparing cattle and pig relative tooth wear rates from Heybridge. Methodological considerations regarding the use of scoring systems to assess wear rate are identified and discussed. The potential causes of variation in tooth wear rates-such as diet, environmental inclusions, dental abnormalities, and genetic variation-are also considered. This study demonstrates the ease and affordability with which the tooth wear rate method can be employed. The results provide no evidence to suggest that comparisons of cattle age profiles between the Iron Age and Roman period at Heybridge or Houten-Castellum may be significantly compromised. However, differences in relative tooth wear rate were found between these two sites, and when comparing them to aurochs and modern outgroups. On this basis, it is suggested that caution be used when comparing kill-off patterns from different archaeological cattle assemblages, and that this methodology be employed routinely to increase the reliability of archaeological interpretations.
The Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) is currently absent as a regular breeder in Britain and its status as a... more The Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) is currently absent as a regular breeder in Britain and its status as a native species has been debated. Its occurrence in the Pleistocene of Britain is sparse but uncontroversial, whereas its Holocene presence rests on very few ambiguous findings. Of these, a specimen from Demen's Dale (Derbyshire) originally attributed to the Mesolithic period is the most important. A re-evaluation of this bone (tarsometatarsus) is presented in this paper. Although its identification as an Eagle Owl is confirmed, radiocarbon dating suggests that the bird rather lived in the Late Pleistocene. On the basis of the current evidence, there are no Holocene remains of the Eagle Owl in the archaeological and fossil record of Britain and the native status of this species remains unconfirmed.
Cattle are the dominant species in most archaeological sites in the Netherlands during the Iron A... more Cattle are the dominant species in most archaeological sites in the Netherlands during the Iron Age and Roman period. However, there are differences in the relative importance of cattle and in how cattle were managed. The aim of this paper is to find out which changes in cattle husbandry occurred between the Iron Age and Roman period, and whether these changes are related to introduced Roman practices. For this study, the Netherlands was divided into four regions, of which the northern region lies outside the Roman Empire. This allows a comparison of regions within and outside the Roman Empire and the potential identification of differential economic developments. First, we looked at diachronic changes and regional differences in the relative proportion of cattle compared to the other main domestic species. Second, data on slaughter ages were used to draw conclusions about the main product cattle were kept for: milk, meat or traction. Next, biometric data were used to investigate sex ratios of cattle, which – combined with mortality profiles – inform about management practices. Finally, biometric data were analysed using the log size index method to trace diachronic changes and regional differences in cattle size. A size increase and the growing role of cattle for traction and as meat providers in towns is also seen in other parts of the northwestern provinces. These changes can directly be related to the Roman occupation and the demand for meat and other animal products.
This study contributes to reconstruct the socioeconomic dynamics of change at the Roman-Early Ang... more This study contributes to reconstruct the socioeconomic dynamics of change at the Roman-Early Anglo-Saxon transition in Britain through zooarchaeological analysis. Contemporary assemblages from the nearby European mainland are used to provide a term of comparison. The results indicate that typical Roman husbandry practices survived into fourth century Britain: the animal economy focussed on cattle, livestock improvements, and surplus production, which allowed to feed the taxation cycle and to supply the army and town dwellers; on the other hand, the zooarchaeological evidence highlights substantial changes in the aims and scale of animal exploitation in the post-Roman period. Such discontinuity demonstrates the key role formerly played by the Roman state in shaping local animal economies and in integrating food production practices throughout the northwestern provinces. At the same time, the more generalized animal husbandry strategies of post-Roman settlements respond well to the needs of self-sufficient communities. Cattle decreased in size, as large, robust animals were no longer needed; on the other hand, the large size of sheep and other domesticates, improved in Roman times, benefitted Early Anglo-Saxon herders, and were often maintained. This evidence suggests that post-Roman communities did not simply cope with adverse economic conditions but reacted appropriately to the new circumstances.
This book presents a survey of world archaeology, from the point of view of animal remain studies... more This book presents a survey of world archaeology, from the point of view of animal remain studies. It can be considered as a showcase for world zooarchaeology. Forty-eight chapters written by researchers from twenty-five countries discuss archaeological investigations in five different continents. The geographic range covers the Arctic as well as the Tropics, islands and continental land masses, marine shores, forests, hills, and mountains. Human interactions with many different creatures—ranging from mammals to birds, fishes, and molluscs—are discussed, and in a great variety of ecological and cultural contexts. Methodological approaches are also diverse, as they are chosen according to the themes and research questions discussed in individual chapters. The full range of zooarchaeological methods is on display, but also integration with evidence deriving from sister disciplines, such as history, ethnography, zoology, palaeontology, and biochemistry. A methodological glossary helps ...
The Rural World in the 16th century. Exploring the Archaeology of Innovation in Europe., 2022
Although many historians have extensively discussed the agricultural history of Europe between th... more Although many historians have extensively discussed the agricultural history of Europe between the late Middle Ages and the modern era, this period of crucial changes has received less attention from archaeologists. In this paper, zooarchaeological evidence from the late Middle Ages to the early modern period is studied to investigate evidence for improvements in animal husbandry during the ‘long’ sixteenth century. The size and shape of the principal domestic animals (cattle, sheep, pig, and chicken) are explored through biometrical data and integrated with evidence of taxonomic frequencies, age-at-death, and sex ratios. Evidence from twelve English sites and nine Basque sites is compared. The results show that in England a remarkable size increase of animals occurred throughout the post-medieval period, with much of this improvement occurring in the sixteenth century. In the Basque Country, a slight improvement is attested only during the ‘long’ sixteenth century, while in the following centuries the size of the animals decreased, perhaps in relation to the economic crisis that affected the Iberian Peninsula for much of the seventeenth century. The nature and causes of these changes and the different scenarios characterizing the two countries are discussed with the aim of understanding the development of early modern farming and the foundations of the so-called Agricultural Revolution.
Cattle and Humans. Interdisciplinary Approaches to an Ancient Relationship, 2022
European communities experienced many agricultural and economic changes during the Iron Age and a... more European communities experienced many agricultural and economic changes during the Iron Age and after the Roman conquest. Variations in livestock size and shape are direct evidence of such transformations. Based on 56,283 cattle bone measurements from 112 archaeological sites, this study aims to better define husbandry change mechanisms and diversity in Britain. Results reveal very different regional patterns, due to environmental and cultural characteristics, breeding preferences, and external contacts. Cattle size seems to reflect the uneven impact of the Iron Age economic organization on British populations, the Roman influence over production strategies, and the establishment of trade networks within Britain and with the mainland Europe. This detailed analysis of the pastoral landscape of the well-de- fined territory of Britain can help our understanding of processes of economic change in the broader area of Iron Age and Roman Europe.
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assemblage. In Late Antiquity, Spolverino lost its original manufacturing functions, as many of the workshops were abandoned; our evidence, however, suggests that some livestock was kept, probably managed by a restricted group of people still living in that area. Some hunting was practiced throughout the occupation but it increased in the later periods. Remarkable, in Late Antiquity, is the occurrence of the fallow deer, an introduced species, rare in Roman contexts.
First, we looked at diachronic changes and regional differences in the relative proportion of cattle compared to the other main domestic species. Second, data on slaughter ages were used to draw conclusions about the main product cattle were kept for: milk, meat or traction. Next, biometric data were used to investigate sex ratios of cattle, which – combined with mortality profiles – inform about management practices. Finally, biometric data were analysed using the log size index method to trace diachronic changes and regional differences in cattle size.
A size increase and the growing role of cattle for traction and as meat providers in towns is also seen in other parts of the northwestern provinces. These changes can directly be related to the Roman occupation and the demand for meat and other animal products.
assemblage. In Late Antiquity, Spolverino lost its original manufacturing functions, as many of the workshops were abandoned; our evidence, however, suggests that some livestock was kept, probably managed by a restricted group of people still living in that area. Some hunting was practiced throughout the occupation but it increased in the later periods. Remarkable, in Late Antiquity, is the occurrence of the fallow deer, an introduced species, rare in Roman contexts.
First, we looked at diachronic changes and regional differences in the relative proportion of cattle compared to the other main domestic species. Second, data on slaughter ages were used to draw conclusions about the main product cattle were kept for: milk, meat or traction. Next, biometric data were used to investigate sex ratios of cattle, which – combined with mortality profiles – inform about management practices. Finally, biometric data were analysed using the log size index method to trace diachronic changes and regional differences in cattle size.
A size increase and the growing role of cattle for traction and as meat providers in towns is also seen in other parts of the northwestern provinces. These changes can directly be related to the Roman occupation and the demand for meat and other animal products.