Maaike Groot
In 2018-2019, I worked at the University of Sheffield as a Marie Sklodowska-Curie Fellow on a project looking at management and mobility of cattle in the Iron Age and Roman Netherlands.
In 2017, I started a new job at the FU Berlin, teaching zooarchaeology and from May 2019, I have taken this job up again. Up till then, my research has mainly focused on the Iron Age and Roman Netherlands and Switzerland, investigating animal husbandry, the agricultural economy and town-country relations. My involvement in the institute's research projects that my interests will move back in time to incorporate earlier periods: I will also be working on projects in Germany and the Republic of Moldova.
In 2017, I started a new job at the FU Berlin, teaching zooarchaeology and from May 2019, I have taken this job up again. Up till then, my research has mainly focused on the Iron Age and Roman Netherlands and Switzerland, investigating animal husbandry, the agricultural economy and town-country relations. My involvement in the institute's research projects that my interests will move back in time to incorporate earlier periods: I will also be working on projects in Germany and the Republic of Moldova.
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Environmental archaeology often studies the direct remains of food or food processing, and is therefore well-suited to address this topic. What is more, a wealth of new data has become available in this field of research in recent years. This allows synthesising research with a regional and diachronic approach.
Indeed, most of the papers in this volume offer studies on subsistence and surplus production with a wide geographical perspective. The research areas vary considerably, ranging from the American Mid-South to Turkey. The range in time periods is just as wide, from c. 7000 BC to the 16th century AD. Topics covered include foraging strategies, the combination of domestic and wild food resources in the Neolithic, water supply, crop specialisation, the effect of the Roman occupation on animal husbandry, town-country relationships and the monastic economy. With this collection of papers and the theoretical framework presented in the introductory chapter, we wish to demonstrate that the topic of subsistence and surplus production remains of interest, and promises to generate more exciting research in the future.
Environmental archaeology often studies the direct remains of food or food processing, and is therefore well-suited to address this topic. What is more, a wealth of new data has become available in this field of research in recent years. This allows synthesising research with a regional and diachronic approach.
Indeed, most of the papers in this volume offer studies on subsistence and surplus production with a wide geographical perspective. The research areas vary considerably, ranging from the American Mid-South to Turkey. The range in time periods is just as wide, from c. 7000 BC to the 16th century AD. Topics covered include foraging strategies, the combination of domestic and wild food resources in the Neolithic, water supply, crop specialisation, the effect of the Roman occupation on animal husbandry, town-country relationships and the monastic economy. With this collection of papers and the theoretical framework presented in the introductory chapter, we wish to demonstrate that the topic of subsistence and surplus production remains of interest, and promises to generate more exciting research in the future.
Apart from presenting the animal bone data set from Tiel-Passewaaij, this study also includes a catalogue of special animal deposits, making it a valuable reference work for animal bone specialists. Through the use of an explicit theoretical framework and innovative methods, such as a comparative contextual analysis, this study surpasses traditional animal bone reports and is of relevance to Roman archaeologists in general.
Handboek zoöarcheologie bespreekt de meest gangbare methoden zoals die in de Nederlandse zoöarcheologie gebruikt worden. Daarnaast bevat het boek tientallen foto’s van verschillende skeletelementen van zoogdieren, die mensen zonder toegang tot vergelijkingsmateriaal in staat stellen kennis te maken met het zoogdierskelet. Als laatste gaat het boek in op het verschil tussen menselijk en dierlijk bot.
Papers
relatively common at archaeological sites as it grows
naturally around settlements in north-western Europe.
All parts of the plant may be used as a medicine
or a narcotic but its natural prevalence in built environments
makes it difficult to interpret any intentionality
behind its presence in the archaeological record.
Evidence of the deliberate collection and use of black
henbane seeds in the Roman Netherlands is presented
here for the first time. Examination of Classical
texts and interrogation of the archaeobotanical
data allow the authors to place the discovery at
Houten-Castellum of a hollowed bone containing
hundreds of black henbane seeds within the context
of the wider Roman understanding of the plant and
its properties.
sites in the Netherlands during the Iron Age and
Roman period. However, there are differences in the relative
importance of cattle and in how cattle were managed.
The aim of this paper is to find out which changes in cattle
husbandry occurred between the Iron Age and Roman
period, and whether these changes are related to introduced
Roman practices. For this study, the Netherlands
was divided into four regions, of which the northern
region lies outside the Roman Empire. This allows a comparison
of regions within and outside the Roman Empire
and the potential identification of differential economic
developments.
First, we looked at diachronic changes and regional
differences in the relative proportion of cattle compared to the other main domestic species. Second, data on slaughter
ages were used to draw conclusions about the main
product cattle were kept for: milk, meat or traction. Next,
biometric data were used to investigate sex ratios of cattle,
which – combined with mortality profiles – inform about
management practices. Finally, biometric data were analysed
using the log size index method to trace diachronic
changes and regional differences in cattle size.
Results of our analysis show higher proportions of
cattle in the western and northern regions and the lowest
proportions in the southern region. This is possibly related
to the stronger focus on arable farming in the southern
region (compared to animal husbandry). An increase in
cattle slaughter ages in the Middle Roman period combined
with an increase in the proportion of male cattle
is interpreted as an increased focus on cattle for traction.
Cattle also formed the main meat provider for Roman
towns. Cattle size shows no significant increase until the
Roman period, and then only in those regions that formed
part of the Roman Empire. The Roman influence on cattle
breeding does not seem to have reached the northern
region.
A size increase and the growing role of cattle for traction
and as meat providers in towns is also seen in other
parts of the northwestern provinces. These changes can directly
be related to the Roman occupation and the demand
for meat and other animal products.
and Roman Netherlands. A key objective is to investigate whether the intensification of cattle husbandry in the
Roman period was associated with an increase in pathology.
Materials: The data set consists of 167 sites with a combined total of 127,373 individual specimens for cattle,
sheep/goat, horse, and pig.
Methods: A quantitative approach was used, investigating the frequency of pathologies over time and per region.
For cattle, pathology frequencies were also investigated per type. Several multi-period sites were considered in
more detail.
Results: Pathology frequencies increased during the Iron Age and Roman period. In cattle, joint pathology was
most common, followed by dental pathology.
Conclusions: The overall frequency of pathology aligns with frequencies in other regions. Some pathological
conditions in cattle can tentatively be linked to intensification, such as joint pathology at two sites in the Middle
and Late Roman periods, an increase in dental pathology and trauma).
Significance: This review revealed diachronic trends and linked them to developments in animal husbandry and
highlights the importance of recording and publishing pathological lesions.
Limitations: The multi-causal origin of joint and dental pathology makes it difficult to relate them to the intensification
of cattle husbandry.
Suggestions for further research: It is hoped that this review will stimulate further paleopathological research
globally, especially systematic studies into foot pathologies.
Archaeological research at Aalst – Siesegemkouter
revealed several pits within a Middle to Late Bronze
Age settlement. Most of them hardly contained any artefacts,
but one exception showed a structured stratigraphy
with an abundance of finds, including a large amount of shattered pottery, charcoal and calcined animal bone. The
study of this assemblage, and comparison with two other
pits showing similarities, provides strong indications of a
closing deposit or another type of ‘site maintenance practice’.
In the Low Countries, comparable contexts generally
date from the Iron Age, suggesting that the finds from
Aalst – Siesegemkouter represent early forerunners of this
ritual practice. On top of this early date, the large volume
of cremated animal bone represents an almost unique
characteristic for which, until now, parallels from the
Metal Ages have hardly been found, even on a Northwestern
European scale. In general, the role played by organic
remains in ritual contexts from these periods and regions
is poorly understood, often due to bad preservation conditions
or the lack of a multidisciplinary approach.
in the 1st century AD in the Roman-occupied part of the
Netherlands was cremation. Parts of animals, pottery
and sometimes glass were placed on the pyre and burned
with the deceased. After the cremation, both human and
animal remains were collected and buried in a grave.
Most graves were surrounded by a ditch and animal remains
and other grave goods can also be found in these
ditches.
This paper provides a review of animal remains from
cremation graves in the Late Iron Age and Roman Netherlands
in order to highlight the role of animals in funerary
ritual. The study focuses on two regions: the river
area in the central Netherlands and the south-eastern
part of the Netherlands. Twenty cemeteries are included
in this study, with a total of 342 graves with identified
burned animal remains. The paper addresses questions
regarding the selection of animal species and body parts
for funerary ritual, the difference between burned and
unburned animal remains found in graves, the presence
of animal remains in other features in the cemeteries,
chronological developments and regional differences.
The analysis of burned animal bones from cremation
graves has led to an understanding of how animals
were used in funerary ritual in the Late Iron Age and
Roman Netherlands. Food offerings of pig, sheep and
chicken were buried on the pyre with the dead and more
food offerings were placed in the grave pit. Animal remains
found in the ditches surrounding graves may be
a result of commemorative rituals. The animal remains
from graves show a selection for species, body part and
the left side of the body. There appears to be little concern
for the selection of certain species for men, women
or children.
Environmental archaeology often studies the direct remains of food or food processing, and is therefore well-suited to address this topic. What is more, a wealth of new data has become available in this field of research in recent years. This allows synthesising research with a regional and diachronic approach.
Indeed, most of the papers in this volume offer studies on subsistence and surplus production with a wide geographical perspective. The research areas vary considerably, ranging from the American Mid-South to Turkey. The range in time periods is just as wide, from c. 7000 BC to the 16th century AD. Topics covered include foraging strategies, the combination of domestic and wild food resources in the Neolithic, water supply, crop specialisation, the effect of the Roman occupation on animal husbandry, town-country relationships and the monastic economy. With this collection of papers and the theoretical framework presented in the introductory chapter, we wish to demonstrate that the topic of subsistence and surplus production remains of interest, and promises to generate more exciting research in the future.
Environmental archaeology often studies the direct remains of food or food processing, and is therefore well-suited to address this topic. What is more, a wealth of new data has become available in this field of research in recent years. This allows synthesising research with a regional and diachronic approach.
Indeed, most of the papers in this volume offer studies on subsistence and surplus production with a wide geographical perspective. The research areas vary considerably, ranging from the American Mid-South to Turkey. The range in time periods is just as wide, from c. 7000 BC to the 16th century AD. Topics covered include foraging strategies, the combination of domestic and wild food resources in the Neolithic, water supply, crop specialisation, the effect of the Roman occupation on animal husbandry, town-country relationships and the monastic economy. With this collection of papers and the theoretical framework presented in the introductory chapter, we wish to demonstrate that the topic of subsistence and surplus production remains of interest, and promises to generate more exciting research in the future.
Apart from presenting the animal bone data set from Tiel-Passewaaij, this study also includes a catalogue of special animal deposits, making it a valuable reference work for animal bone specialists. Through the use of an explicit theoretical framework and innovative methods, such as a comparative contextual analysis, this study surpasses traditional animal bone reports and is of relevance to Roman archaeologists in general.
Handboek zoöarcheologie bespreekt de meest gangbare methoden zoals die in de Nederlandse zoöarcheologie gebruikt worden. Daarnaast bevat het boek tientallen foto’s van verschillende skeletelementen van zoogdieren, die mensen zonder toegang tot vergelijkingsmateriaal in staat stellen kennis te maken met het zoogdierskelet. Als laatste gaat het boek in op het verschil tussen menselijk en dierlijk bot.
relatively common at archaeological sites as it grows
naturally around settlements in north-western Europe.
All parts of the plant may be used as a medicine
or a narcotic but its natural prevalence in built environments
makes it difficult to interpret any intentionality
behind its presence in the archaeological record.
Evidence of the deliberate collection and use of black
henbane seeds in the Roman Netherlands is presented
here for the first time. Examination of Classical
texts and interrogation of the archaeobotanical
data allow the authors to place the discovery at
Houten-Castellum of a hollowed bone containing
hundreds of black henbane seeds within the context
of the wider Roman understanding of the plant and
its properties.
sites in the Netherlands during the Iron Age and
Roman period. However, there are differences in the relative
importance of cattle and in how cattle were managed.
The aim of this paper is to find out which changes in cattle
husbandry occurred between the Iron Age and Roman
period, and whether these changes are related to introduced
Roman practices. For this study, the Netherlands
was divided into four regions, of which the northern
region lies outside the Roman Empire. This allows a comparison
of regions within and outside the Roman Empire
and the potential identification of differential economic
developments.
First, we looked at diachronic changes and regional
differences in the relative proportion of cattle compared to the other main domestic species. Second, data on slaughter
ages were used to draw conclusions about the main
product cattle were kept for: milk, meat or traction. Next,
biometric data were used to investigate sex ratios of cattle,
which – combined with mortality profiles – inform about
management practices. Finally, biometric data were analysed
using the log size index method to trace diachronic
changes and regional differences in cattle size.
Results of our analysis show higher proportions of
cattle in the western and northern regions and the lowest
proportions in the southern region. This is possibly related
to the stronger focus on arable farming in the southern
region (compared to animal husbandry). An increase in
cattle slaughter ages in the Middle Roman period combined
with an increase in the proportion of male cattle
is interpreted as an increased focus on cattle for traction.
Cattle also formed the main meat provider for Roman
towns. Cattle size shows no significant increase until the
Roman period, and then only in those regions that formed
part of the Roman Empire. The Roman influence on cattle
breeding does not seem to have reached the northern
region.
A size increase and the growing role of cattle for traction
and as meat providers in towns is also seen in other
parts of the northwestern provinces. These changes can directly
be related to the Roman occupation and the demand
for meat and other animal products.
and Roman Netherlands. A key objective is to investigate whether the intensification of cattle husbandry in the
Roman period was associated with an increase in pathology.
Materials: The data set consists of 167 sites with a combined total of 127,373 individual specimens for cattle,
sheep/goat, horse, and pig.
Methods: A quantitative approach was used, investigating the frequency of pathologies over time and per region.
For cattle, pathology frequencies were also investigated per type. Several multi-period sites were considered in
more detail.
Results: Pathology frequencies increased during the Iron Age and Roman period. In cattle, joint pathology was
most common, followed by dental pathology.
Conclusions: The overall frequency of pathology aligns with frequencies in other regions. Some pathological
conditions in cattle can tentatively be linked to intensification, such as joint pathology at two sites in the Middle
and Late Roman periods, an increase in dental pathology and trauma).
Significance: This review revealed diachronic trends and linked them to developments in animal husbandry and
highlights the importance of recording and publishing pathological lesions.
Limitations: The multi-causal origin of joint and dental pathology makes it difficult to relate them to the intensification
of cattle husbandry.
Suggestions for further research: It is hoped that this review will stimulate further paleopathological research
globally, especially systematic studies into foot pathologies.
Archaeological research at Aalst – Siesegemkouter
revealed several pits within a Middle to Late Bronze
Age settlement. Most of them hardly contained any artefacts,
but one exception showed a structured stratigraphy
with an abundance of finds, including a large amount of shattered pottery, charcoal and calcined animal bone. The
study of this assemblage, and comparison with two other
pits showing similarities, provides strong indications of a
closing deposit or another type of ‘site maintenance practice’.
In the Low Countries, comparable contexts generally
date from the Iron Age, suggesting that the finds from
Aalst – Siesegemkouter represent early forerunners of this
ritual practice. On top of this early date, the large volume
of cremated animal bone represents an almost unique
characteristic for which, until now, parallels from the
Metal Ages have hardly been found, even on a Northwestern
European scale. In general, the role played by organic
remains in ritual contexts from these periods and regions
is poorly understood, often due to bad preservation conditions
or the lack of a multidisciplinary approach.
in the 1st century AD in the Roman-occupied part of the
Netherlands was cremation. Parts of animals, pottery
and sometimes glass were placed on the pyre and burned
with the deceased. After the cremation, both human and
animal remains were collected and buried in a grave.
Most graves were surrounded by a ditch and animal remains
and other grave goods can also be found in these
ditches.
This paper provides a review of animal remains from
cremation graves in the Late Iron Age and Roman Netherlands
in order to highlight the role of animals in funerary
ritual. The study focuses on two regions: the river
area in the central Netherlands and the south-eastern
part of the Netherlands. Twenty cemeteries are included
in this study, with a total of 342 graves with identified
burned animal remains. The paper addresses questions
regarding the selection of animal species and body parts
for funerary ritual, the difference between burned and
unburned animal remains found in graves, the presence
of animal remains in other features in the cemeteries,
chronological developments and regional differences.
The analysis of burned animal bones from cremation
graves has led to an understanding of how animals
were used in funerary ritual in the Late Iron Age and
Roman Netherlands. Food offerings of pig, sheep and
chicken were buried on the pyre with the dead and more
food offerings were placed in the grave pit. Animal remains
found in the ditches surrounding graves may be
a result of commemorative rituals. The animal remains
from graves show a selection for species, body part and
the left side of the body. There appears to be little concern
for the selection of certain species for men, women
or children.
This paper focuses on the river delta of the Rhine and Meuse. This river landscape was dynamic, with changing water levels and frequent flooding of large parts of the landscape. Only small areas were suitable for arable agriculture. Traditionally, rural communities practised mixed farming, with a large pastoral component. Optimum use was made of the possibilities of the landscape.
The army and urban population that arrived with the Roman Empire were largely dependent for food on the surrounding countryside. Although the local environment was not the most suitable for arable production, archaeological research has demonstrated that rural communities were able to produce a surplus of arable and animal products.
Until the Roman period, the effect of human activities on the river landscape was mainly limited to the vegetation. Every time that a levee, crevasse splay or streamridge became suitable for occupation, people built farmsteads and cut down most of the natural river woodland. When it became too wet or the farmsteads were washed away by river floods, they moved to a different location. The open nature of the land was maintained by grazing livestock and working small-scale arable fields. The Roman farmers were the first who affected the landscape itself. They tried to drain away water by digging small trenches, so they could stay in one location for longer. Draining water also increased the area suitable for arable fields. It was not until the Middle Ages, when dikes were built to prevent the rivers flooding farmland and pasture, that humans became really sedentary for centuries. Canalization of the rivers resulted in a shorter course, and the rivers lost much of their ability to store large volumes of water, so that floods became more frequent and severe. After centuries of attempts to tame the rivers, recent developments are recognising the importance of the river delta to store water. New nature reserves have been created, in some parts dikes have been removed, and the area is regaining some of its former dynamism. The new nature reserves are managed by grazing semi-wild cattle and horses. The animals are not managed for meat production, but the meat of surplus animals is sold as ‘wilderness meat’ and gaining a good reputation. These are the ultimate free-range animals, eating a natural diet, and not receiving antibiotics or growth hormones.
In a way, these nature reserves are reminiscent of what the river delta must have looked like in the Roman period. In this dynamic landscape, past, present and future are coming together again.