- 200 University Avenue West
Waterloo, Ontario
N2L 3G1 - 519-888-4567 ext. 48615
- Dalhousie University, Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, Department MemberSt. Mary's University, International Development Studies, AdjunctUniversity of the Western Cape, Institute for Water Studies, Adjunctadd
- Environmental Studies, Political Ecology, Africa, Environmental Sustainability, Development Studies, Climate Change, and 24 morePolitical Science, International Studies, Peace and Conflict Studies, Political Sociology, Water resources, Conflict Resolution, Water, Integrated Water Resources Management, South African Politics and Society, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Natural Resources Management, Monica Herz, Governance, Water governance, Water Security, Sociology, Globalization, International Relations, Critical Security Studies, South Africa, Sustainable Water Resources Management, Transboundary Water Issues, and Prefigurative Politicsedit
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
The Wageningen UR Library Catalogue contains bibliographic data on books and periodicals held by the libraries of Wageningen University and Research Centre and some 15 associated libraries. Holding data are added to each record.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Christopher Rowan. The Politics of Water in Africa: The European Union's Role in Development Aid Partnership. London and New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 2009. International Library of African Studies, no. 24. xiii + 203 pp. Glossary. Abbreviations. Notes. Tables. Photographs. Appendixes. Bibli...more
Research Interests:
The Wageningen UR Library Catalogue contains bibliographic data on books and periodicals held by the libraries of Wageningen University and Research Centre and some 15 associated libraries. Holding data are added to each record.
Research Interests:
Research Interests: Human Geography, African Studies, Development Studies, Architecture, Globalization, and 15 moreEnvironmental Studies, Economic Growth, Political Science, Africa, South African Politics and Society, Global Studies, Environmental Sustainability, Political Geography, Urban And Regional Planning, Participatory Planning, South Africa, Legislation, Regional Planning Development, Sustainability, and Equity Law
Research Interests:
This collection is concerned with revisiting and redefining the political economy — both empirical and theoretical — of foreign policy in the South as we approach the twenty-first century: the position of post-colonial states in the... more
This collection is concerned with revisiting and redefining the political economy — both empirical and theoretical — of foreign policy in the South as we approach the twenty-first century: the position of post-colonial states in the post-Bretton Woods and post-Cold War world. Neither this volume nor the interaction upon which it is based could have proceeded over the last five years without timely financial support from several funding agencies and genuine intellectual commitment and integrity from many colleagues. Generous financial assistance has been provided since the late 1980s by the Canadian Institute for International Peace and Security, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada for research and workshop support on ‘Surviving at the Margins’, ‘The Political Economy of Security and Democracy in the Third World’, and ‘The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in the Third World in the 1990s’, respectively. Amongst the products of this continuing international and interdisciplinary collaboration are Swatuk and Shaw (eds) Prospects for Peace and Development in Southern Africa in the 1990s (1991), Shaw and Korany (eds), ‘Special Issue: The South in the New World (Dis)Order’, and Shaw and Okolo (eds), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (1994). Together these interrelated projects on comparative regions in the South have also generated conference panels and papers at ASA, BISA, CAAS, CASID and ISA and a series of individual and joint articles.
Research Interests:
Research Interests: Human Geography, Political Economy, Development Studies, International Development, Human Rights, and 15 morePolitics, Development anthropology, International Political Economy, Citizen Journalism, Human Development, Environmental Ethics, Natural Resource Management, Gender and Development, Applied Economics, Developmental Economics, Environmental degradation, European Union Development Cooperation, Natural Resource, Globalisation, and Palgrave Macmillan
Prospects for Peace and Development in Southern Africa in the 1990s: Canadian and Comparative Perspectives SWATUK Larry A.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Water is vital to human life. With it, we thrive, along with our crops, our domesticated animals, our societies and our civilization. Without it, we die in as few as three days. For humanity, water is both a biological and social... more
Water is vital to human life. With it, we thrive, along with our crops, our domesticated animals, our societies and our civilization. Without it, we die in as few as three days. For humanity, water is both a biological and social imperative, and both our history and our current geopolitical landscape are shaped by it to an extent that is seldom recognized or acknowledged.
Research Interests:
Extant studies of the foreign policies of Southern African states have been dominated by opposing realist and dependency modes of analysis. As a result, virtually all studies of Southern Africa give at best only partial accounts of the... more
Extant studies of the foreign policies of Southern African states have been dominated by opposing realist and dependency modes of analysis. As a result, virtually all studies of Southern Africa give at best only partial accounts of the cause(s) and effect(s) of "destabilisation" in the region. With the end of the Cold War and the imminent demise of apartheid, however, it is time to reevaluate approaches and reinterprets events in this troubled region.
Research Interests:
The aim of this book is to encourage scholars in Southern Africa, particularly those working in the field of international relations, to theorize their region, the discipline and, we believe, their daily lives. As suggested by Wallerstein... more
The aim of this book is to encourage scholars in Southern Africa, particularly those working in the field of international relations, to theorize their region, the discipline and, we believe, their daily lives. As suggested by Wallerstein above, new ‘utopias’ are being visited on the region. This should encourage those interested in Southern Africa to think hard about preferred visions of and for the future. Depending where one stands, the region can look more varied than unified, more divisive than accepting of diversity, more stable than insecure. What is Southern Africa? Is there an objective definition we might aim for? How inclusive is that picture? What future(s) for those ‘inside’, and for those without?
Research Interests:
This collection is centered on the so-called nexus. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, a ‘nexus’ may be defined as: (a) connection, link, and also a causal link; (b) a connected group or series and (c) center, focus (see... more
This collection is centered on the so-called nexus. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, a ‘nexus’ may be defined as: (a) connection, link, and also a causal link; (b) a connected group or series and (c) center, focus (see www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nexus). There is a well-known trend in policymaking circles toward integrating water, energy and food policy—the WEF nexus—within an overarching climate change and security ‘nexus’ (see Water Alternatives special issue guest edited by Allouche et al. 2015 and International Journal of Water Resources Development special issue guest edited by Allan et al. 2015). This is reflected in the policy frameworks of the Department for International Development (DfID) and the German Development Agency (GIZ) where the ‘nexus’ is the new operating framework. In addition, significant forums such as the Stockholm World Water Week, hosted by the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI), and the World Economic Forum have drawn...
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Recent changes in the global political economy pose major challenges to the peoples of the South as state-makers and individuals alike seek to (re)define and secure their positions in the new international divisions of labour and power... more
Recent changes in the global political economy pose major challenges to the peoples of the South as state-makers and individuals alike seek to (re)define and secure their positions in the new international divisions of labour and power (NIDL/P). If the terms ‘Third World’ and/or ‘South’ were seen as overly simplified in the past, the end of the Cold War and the emergence of post-industrial processes of global production have now rendered these terms even more problematic.
Research Interests:
The year 2012 marks the twentieth anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (commonly called the Earth Summit) held at Rio de Janeiro, and the tenth anniversary since Rio’s follow-up meeting at... more
The year 2012 marks the twentieth anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (commonly called the Earth Summit) held at Rio de Janeiro, and the tenth anniversary since Rio’s follow-up meeting at Johannesburg, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). Much of our thinking about ‘the environment’ has been transformed since Rio, but much too has remained unchanged. As ‘the world’ gears up for Rio +20, this introductory essay begins with a brief reflection on what has changed and what has stayed the same within the intersections of environment and security over the past 20 years. Our focus then shifts to the directions we would like to see both the analysis and practice of ‘environmental security’ move in the immediate term — that is, a move towards critical environmental security.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
No matter how narrowly you focus your spatial or temporal lenses, you are bound to catch sight of multiple significant challenges to human community. Many of these challenges are shared, such as Covid-19, though their impacts on... more
No matter how narrowly you focus your spatial or temporal lenses, you are bound to catch sight of multiple significant challenges to human community. Many of these challenges are shared, such as Covid-19, though their impacts on individuals and groups are felt unevenly. Some challenges are immediate and existential, such as the wars in Ukraine, Syria, and Yemen. Others, such as race, gender, caste, and class-based inequalities, are deeply embedded in social structures, providing privilege and persecution, and reward and oppression in unequal measures. And climate change, though slower moving, holds out the prospect of leading to total social collapse. How to make sense of these dramatic changes? This essay explores the adequacy of theories of IR and G/IPE in explaining the emergent world (dis)order. It argues that, whether orthodox or critical, theory must find a way to centre humanity within the biosphere if theory is to adequately inform practice.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This chapter examines the prospects for increasing formal political and economic integration in post-apartheid Southern Africa. In the midst of emerging New International Divisions of Labor and Power (NIDL/P), regional integration schemes... more
This chapter examines the prospects for increasing formal political and economic integration in post-apartheid Southern Africa. In the midst of emerging New International Divisions of Labor and Power (NIDL/P), regional integration schemes have gained new currency throughout the South as potential solutions to increasing political and economic marginalization and underdevelopment (Shaw and Swatuk 1994). Clearly, the forces of globalization make it very difficult for the overwhelming majority of Third World countries to compete and prosper in the NIDL/P (Mittelman 1994; Nnoli 1993).
Research Interests:
Water is essential to all aspects of human life. As such, water access, use, and management reflect society back to itself. Swatuk focuses on selected aspects of human water use, in particular water for development, cities, and... more
Water is essential to all aspects of human life. As such, water access, use, and management reflect society back to itself. Swatuk focuses on selected aspects of human water use, in particular water for development, cities, and agriculture. He highlights the discourses at play in determining who gets what kind of water and the centrality of economic and political power in determining social flows of water. Swatuk concludes that there is no “magic bullet” to solving the world’s water woes due to the multiplicity of stakeholders and their differential interests and capacities. As a result, a more socially equitable, economically efficient, and ecologically sustainable outcome will require citizens to be organized and active.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
The Wageningen UR Library Catalogue contains bibliographic data on books and periodicals held by the libraries of Wageningen University and Research Centre and some 15 associated libraries. Holding data are added to each record.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
... 33 LA Swatuk & D Rahm, 'Integrating policy, disintegrating practice: water resources management in Botswana', Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 29, 2004, pp 13571364; and L Magole,... more
... 33 LA Swatuk & D Rahm, 'Integrating policy, disintegrating practice: water resources management in Botswana', Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 29, 2004, pp 13571364; and L Magole, 'The feasibility of implementing an integrated management plan of the Okavango Delta ...
Research Interests: Sociology of Sport, Geography, African Studies, Political Economy, Development Studies, and 13 morePolitical Ecology, Political Science, Politics, Rural Development, Ecology, Third World, Livelihood, Wildlife, Public Policy and Administration, Public Administration and Policy, Household Survey, Routledge, and Potable water
... Preserving nature should need no political/social/economic justification: in my opinion there is intrinsic value in nature. ... which will likely employ 810,000 people and inject an estimated N$25 million/annum into Windhoek's... more
... Preserving nature should need no political/social/economic justification: in my opinion there is intrinsic value in nature. ... which will likely employ 810,000 people and inject an estimated N$25 million/annum into Windhoek's economyeffluent quality? Water use efficiency? ...
Research Interests:
The dynamics of regionalism in Southern Africa have changed dramatically in recent years. To be sure, there is much continuity — in terms of both conflict and co-operation — for it will be many years before the negative impacts of uneven... more
The dynamics of regionalism in Southern Africa have changed dramatically in recent years. To be sure, there is much continuity — in terms of both conflict and co-operation — for it will be many years before the negative impacts of uneven capitalist development and apartheid ‘destabilization’ are overcome (Shaw, 1986; Ohlson and Stedman, 1994). Nevertheless, there is for the first time a recognition that problems and possibilities for the region may be approached on their own merits without first having to be filtered through Cold War and apartheid ideological lenses. As a result, the ‘old’ regionalism is now making room for new, innovative and important (re)conceptions of regional identity and practice in Southern Africa.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
ABSTRACT The 1998 Zimbabwe Water Act introduced the ideas of ‘lowest appropriate authority’ in the management of water resources. To this end, the country has been divided into seven catchments. This new set-up is intended to achieve... more
ABSTRACT The 1998 Zimbabwe Water Act introduced the ideas of ‘lowest appropriate authority’ in the management of water resources. To this end, the country has been divided into seven catchments. This new set-up is intended to achieve efficiency, accountability and sustainability through stakeholder participation. This paper critically examines the way in which the idea of ‘stakeholder participation’ has been operationalised in the new water reform process. We examine recent experiences of participation in the creation and operation of the new water management structure, in particular Catchment Councils in Zimbabwe, and argue against an uncritical or atheoretical understanding of ‘participation’. To simply assume that inclusivist language translates into wider benefits for society is to ignore the profoundly political nature of the entire water reform process.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
How humans have used and misused water is the story of civilization itself. Water is paradoxical-it is ever-renewable but often scarce-and humanity's relationship to it is often contradictory. Although water is essential and... more
How humans have used and misused water is the story of civilization itself. Water is paradoxical-it is ever-renewable but often scarce-and humanity's relationship to it is often contradictory. Although water is essential and non-substitutable it is often taken for granted. While it is finite and fugitive, humans flock to cities and expand agricultural enterprises as if the water will always be there in abundance. The challenges for water security are many and varied, and go to the heart of social organization. The chapter argues that seeing 'security' through different lenses reveals different sets of threats and vulnerabilities. Changing the referent object-the state, individuals, the environment-changes the context for action. Given water's central role in building political and economic power, 'water security' is generally tied to the security of the sovereign state. Actions taken in support of securing water for the state generally involve a confluence of political, economic and technical power. Over the last several decades, numerous attempts have been made to structure action in support of the greater social and environmental good. A variety of discursive framings have emerged to drive collective action. Yet, the legal and institutional frameworks for action remain state-centric, not only in terms of the primary beneficiary of water security, but in terms of the ontological framework for seeing security and insecurity. As shown in the chapter, limited formal space has been created for civil society participation, and for alternative perspectives and approaches to water security to emerge. The chapter concludes that despite numerous attempts to draw the world toward new ways of seeing water, deeply embedded interests, practices and processes ensure that efforts in support of "water security" will continue to yield highly uneven outcomes: security for some, insecurity for many.
Research Interests:
This chapter presents the origins of a graduate degree program designed for the sustainable development era. The idea for the Master of Development Practice (MDP) program emerged in 2007 and the first students matriculated in 2009. Today,... more
This chapter presents the origins of a graduate degree program designed for the sustainable development era. The idea for the Master of Development Practice (MDP) program emerged in 2007 and the first students matriculated in 2009. Today, the MDP degree program and the associated MDP Global Association include nearly 40 universities and countless partners among civil society and public and private sectors (Global Association, 2019). What follows details the conditions that led to forming a commission to explore the need for a new educational model and an overview of the key features of the sustainable development education model that resulted. There is then a reflection on the separate and shared experiences of the MDP program, viewed primarily through five programs in the North American region, followed by learning and adaptation that occurred, and how collaboration among programs fostered the evolution of a shared program. The chapter concludes with reflections on the strengths and challenges of the MDP model and the collaborative endeavor.
Research Interests:
This is the 2021 syllabus of my on-going 3rd year course at the University of Waterloo.
Research Interests:
This is the course syllabus for an e-course I will be offering through the University of Waterloo in September 2015.
Research Interests:
Now 23 years old, this publication took a continent-wide focus to explore what a post-apartheid South Africa might mean for the rest of the continent.
Research Interests:
Many countries are addressing deforestation through sustainable ecosystem management collaborations to achieve sustainable forest management (SFM). Successful countries recognize local participation as essential to any conservation... more
Many countries are addressing deforestation through sustainable ecosystem management collaborations to achieve sustainable forest management (SFM). Successful countries recognize local participation as essential to any conservation effort. In Ghana, the country’s forest cover has experienced significant exploitation over the years leading to the less desirability and decline in ecological integrity. Despite its designation as a protected area for biodiversity and ecosystem services, the Atewa Forest in Ghana has been significantly impacted by humans through deforestation, illegal mining and many livelihood activities. Despite opposition from local communities, some state actors and international conservation organizations, the Ghanaian government has plans for bauxite mining in the Atewa Forest. This case study research drew upon the interactive governance model do address forest governance conflicts. Interview and focus group data from the fieldwork was analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phase approach to thematic analysis. The results of the study suggest that to achieve SFM, a bottom-up, all-inclusive approach to the management of forest resources is the most recommended. The study proposes an integrative governance approach to forest governance as a starting point for solving forest governance problems and creating societal opportunities for win-win outcomes.
Research Interests:
The Zambezi River and its many tributaries course across central-southern Africa like life sustaining arteries, supporting the diverse flora and fauna of the basin, including the more than 30 million people living there. The basin is a... more
The Zambezi River and its many tributaries course across central-southern Africa like life sustaining arteries, supporting the diverse flora and fauna of the basin, including the more than 30 million people living there. The basin is a complex system made all the more complex with the advent of sovereign states, which are the result of a long history of colonial and imperial involvement in the sub-continent. While colonialism created a hodgepodge of largely incoherent state forms, the collective struggle for independence combined with the hard fact of shared river basins led to innovative and creative institution building throughout the region. The Zambezi Watercourse Commission, established in 2014, is one such example of this. River basin organizations aim to treat the access, use and management of the region’s resources in a holistic fashion. In the effort to bring fragmented social, political and economic entities together particular discourses have been developed around ‘benefit sharing’. Most recently Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) as a framework for action has been supplemented with (some would say supplanted by) the Water Energy Food Nexus (WEF Nexus). Lately, WEF has become WEFE, with ‘Ecosystems’ added to the mix. This paper examines the challenges and opportunities confronting the ZAMCOM region and the utility of framing concepts such as IWRM and WEFE Nexus in moving the region toward sustainable resource use and more equitable access.
Research Interests:
In the context of critical agrarian studies, not only is it important to understand the biophysical nature of water, but it is equally important to understand the ways it is embedded in society and how the interaction between society and... more
In the context of critical agrarian studies, not only is it important to understand the biophysical nature of water, but it is equally important to understand the ways it is embedded in society and how the interaction between society and the natural world alters the lived reality. Thus, how water is used reflects society back to itself. While water in its natural form flows along the hydraulic gradient, more often than not, in its social form, it flows toward power. In this chapter, water is briefly described biophysically, then discussed largely in relation to human needs. The chapter argues that dominant approaches to water security are invested in the capture of available surface and ground water through large-scale infrastructure. In the words of Falkenmark and Rockstrom, they are ‘blue water biased’. It is argued here that those centrally invested in livelihood security need to challenge this bias through better articulation of such a perspective’s negative consequences. The chapter argues that critical agrarian studies should adopt a green water preference, i.e. concentrating on assisting farmers to make better use of the rainfall available to them, while simultaneously challenging and exposing the uneven outcomes deriving from state, private sector and financial capital biases toward large scale infrastructure projects. The chapter concludes that strategies for sustainability and equity in agrarian transformation must include new ways of seeing and thinking about water. Extant orthodoxies regarding resource capture and the control of nature not only harm the many but exacerbate vulnerabilities in a climate changing world.
Research Interests:
How humans have used and misused water is the story of civilization itself. Water is paradoxical-it is ever-renewable but often scarce-and humanity's relationship to it is often contradictory. Although water is essential and... more
How humans have used and misused water is the story of civilization itself. Water is paradoxical-it is ever-renewable but often scarce-and humanity's relationship to it is often contradictory. Although water is essential and non-substitutable it is often taken for granted. While it is finite and fugitive, humans flock to cities and expand agricultural enterprises as if the water will always be there in abundance. The challenges for water security are many and varied, and go to the heart of social organization. The chapter argues that seeing 'security' through different lenses reveals different sets of threats and vulnerabilities. Changing the referent object-the state, individuals, the environment-changes the context for action. Given water's central role in building political and economic power, 'water security' is generally tied to the security of the sovereign state. Actions taken in support of securing water for the state generally involve a confluence of political, economic and technical power. Over the last several decades, numerous attempts have been made to structure action in support of the greater social and environmental good. A variety of discursive framings have emerged to drive collective action. Yet, the legal and institutional frameworks for action remain state-centric, not only in terms of the primary beneficiary of water security, but in terms of the ontological framework for seeing security and insecurity. As shown in the chapter, limited formal space has been created for civil society participation, and for alternative perspectives and approaches to water security to emerge. The chapter concludes that despite numerous attempts to draw the world toward new ways of seeing water, deeply embedded interests, practices and processes ensure that efforts in support of "water security" will continue to yield highly uneven outcomes: security for some, insecurity for many.
Research Interests:
Across the world of development practice, a great deal of faith is placed in 'participation' as a solution to poor resource governance and management. But how to effectively bring together differently empowered actors across a sometimes... more
Across the world of development practice, a great deal of faith is placed in 'participation' as a solution to poor resource governance and management. But how to effectively bring together differently empowered actors across a sometimes diffuse socio-economic-political-environmental landscape? In this paper we reflect on the capacity of environmental education to serve as a catalyst toward cooperation. By drawing on insights from across the resource governance and management literature and exploring the particularities of the Engenho Pequeno conservation unit in Brazil, we argue that different framings of the setting and the challenge are necessary when trying to draw together groups at local level (i.e. close to the resource) and national level (i.e. those removed physically from the resource but most influential in terms of decision-making and resource mobilization capacity). In this way, environmental education can act as an advocate for more sustainable, equitable and efficient resource management.
Research Interests:
Sub-Saharan Africa has been subject to 30+ years of neoliberal structural adjustment. In this paper I examine the impact of neoliberalism on water services in the continent, with an emphasis on big water (water in agriculture) and small... more
Sub-Saharan Africa has been subject to 30+ years of neoliberal structural adjustment. In this paper I examine the impact of neoliberalism on water services in the continent, with an emphasis on big water (water in agriculture) and small water (water for people). The evidence shows a mixed outcome in terms of increased access to the quality and quantity of water people need. The dominant outcome it seems to me is a reinforcement of 'water apartheid' across the continent: more water for the few; less (or a little more, if you can afford it) for the many. Worse is the way in which neoliberal governmentality facilitates the widening of the gap between the haves and have nots on the continent. Where positive impacts have been realized, these are the by product of a particular set of circumstances, almost in spite of, not because of neoliberal reforms.
Research Interests:
Book Review of Understanding Water Security at Local Government Level in South Africa (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019) edited by Richard Meissner, Nikki Funke, Karen Nortje, Maronel Steyn appearing in Water Alternatives.
Research Interests:
A book review in International Feminist Journal of Politics of Md Saidul Islam and Md Ismail Hossain's monograph as titled above.
Research Interests:
Many of the world's largest cities face 'day zero' scenarios-i.e. the possibility of, one day soon, running out of water. Water is a non-substitutable, essential, finite and fugitive resource. It is the lifeblood of cities. Cities,... more
Many of the world's largest cities face 'day zero' scenarios-i.e. the possibility of, one day soon, running out of water. Water is a non-substitutable, essential, finite and fugitive resource. It is the lifeblood of cities. Cities, through global processes such as Agenda 2030 and forums such as ICLEI and World Water Week exchange best practices for achieving water security. These forums also are collective social spaces occupied by civil society organizations who share strategies and tactics, and the private sector, who compete for markets and contracts, promoting patent-protected technologies. It is these groups-states, civil societies, private sectors-coming together who determine who gets what water, when, and where. It is the job of academics to understand the how and why, and of (academic-)activists to fight for equity of access and sustainability of use. Evidence drawn from around the world and over time consistently shows that water flows toward money and power. Outcomes are generally socially inequitable, environmentally unsustainable and economically inefficient. How to shift existing processes toward improved practices is not clear, but positive outcomes do exist. In this series of papers, we compare and contrast the challenges and opportunities for urban water security with a focus on megacities. We hope to constructively contribute to a global conversation that concerns us all: how to avoid 'day zero'.