- University of Groningen
Groningen Institute of Archaeology
Poststraat 6
9712 ER Groningen - 0031-(0)50-3636045
Albert Nijboer
University of Groningen, Archaeology, Faculty Member
Abstract. Urban societies have public squares that can accommodate larger groups of people on a regular basis for meetings, jurisdiction, festivities and for the exchange of goods and ideas. Such open spaces are known from numerous places... more
Abstract. Urban societies have public squares that can accommodate larger groups of people on a regular basis for meetings, jurisdiction, festivities and for the exchange of goods and ideas. Such open spaces are known from numerous places such as Athens (Agora), Rome (Forum Romanum) and Groningen (Grote Markt). They frequently develop in the centre of towns near the main sanctuary. The early development of such urban, public, open spaces in Central Italy is poorly understood, even in recent publications on the development of the Roman economy from the eight to fourth centuries BC. The monumental Roman fora are mainly known from later periods. In this paper, I present Satricum as a case study for the rise of such urban, public squares until roughly 500 BC. The final orthogonal layout of the area immediately surrounding the last monumental temple on the Acropolis of this settlement was preceded by centuries of habitation, increasing interregional trade, craft specialisation and the development of city-states. The paper was written as an homage to my fine colleague Elisabeth van ’t Lindenhout, who retired in 2021.
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The artificial terp mounds of Baflo and Rasquert in the north of the province of Groningen are located next to each other, separated by a waterway that connects the Wadden Sea with the interior. During the Early Middle Ages, the twin... more
The artificial terp mounds of Baflo and Rasquert in the north
of the province of Groningen are located next to each other, separated
by a waterway that connects the Wadden Sea with the
interior. During the Early Middle Ages, the twin hamlets grew
into the central settlement of the district Halfambt, each with
a different focus: Baflo being more of an ecclesiastical centre,
and Rasquert the home of some rising aristocratic families.
This development can be explored by examining an array of
archaeological and historical data. In this paper we describe
the development of Rasquert from the 3rd/2nd century BC
into Carolingian/Ottonian times, as it evolved into a mound
with several farmsteads and an accompanying lower mound
that during the Early Middle Ages probably served as a burial
ground. In honour of Egge Knol, we here introduce and illustrate
three topics: the ceramic evidence, three of the seven longitudinal
sections that were drawn in 1928/1929 and that reveal
the construction of the mound over time, and the Rasquert-
Bultvenne cemetery.
of the province of Groningen are located next to each other, separated
by a waterway that connects the Wadden Sea with the
interior. During the Early Middle Ages, the twin hamlets grew
into the central settlement of the district Halfambt, each with
a different focus: Baflo being more of an ecclesiastical centre,
and Rasquert the home of some rising aristocratic families.
This development can be explored by examining an array of
archaeological and historical data. In this paper we describe
the development of Rasquert from the 3rd/2nd century BC
into Carolingian/Ottonian times, as it evolved into a mound
with several farmsteads and an accompanying lower mound
that during the Early Middle Ages probably served as a burial
ground. In honour of Egge Knol, we here introduce and illustrate
three topics: the ceramic evidence, three of the seven longitudinal
sections that were drawn in 1928/1929 and that reveal
the construction of the mound over time, and the Rasquert-
Bultvenne cemetery.
Research Interests:
The fragmented, indigenous polities along the coasts of the Western Mediterranean, including western Italy, became progressively incorporated in a long-distance, overseas, exchange network that covered almost the whole Mediterranean from... more
The fragmented, indigenous polities along the coasts of the Western Mediterranean, including western Italy, became progressively incorporated in a long-distance, overseas, exchange network that covered almost the whole Mediterranean from the tenth century BC onwards. Such communities could become dynamic recipients of goods and expertise that transformed some of their material culture in a decidedly hybrid blend as will be illustrated. This phase is often referred to as the Orientalizing phenomenon, which is accompanied by early city-state formation in some Mediterranean regions that were previously non-urban. Most new manufacturing techniques initially produced high value–low output commodities for which there was a significant need due to local social competition, the rate of which is essential for making cities. Some of the commodities in time gradually altered into low value–high output goods by increased demand, being produced in workshops that signify full centralization and eventually towns with thousands of inhabitants after 700/600 BC. Other skills introduced became hardly anchored in the western Mediterranean during the period 1000 to 700 BC partially due to the still non-urban social-economic environment, restricting demand and display. From a cross-cultural, comparative perspective, it appears that all urbanization is accompanied by some form of craft specialization that resulted in a number of commodities that became available for many: low value–high output goods produced in workshops by skilled craftspeople.
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Source publications for the archaeology and history of Rasquert from the 3rd century BC to roughly 2000 AD Project description The translation in English is slightly more elaborate than the Dutch version of Project Rasquert that can be... more
Source publications for the archaeology and history of Rasquert
from the 3rd century BC to roughly 2000 AD
Project description
The translation in English is slightly more elaborate than the Dutch version of Project Rasquert that can be found as an open source document on my academia.edu page https://rug.academia.edu/AlbertNijboer or on the website of the Historical Society Baflo http://www.bavvelt.nl/index_htm_files/Rasquert%20Projectbeschrijving%202021.pdf
from the 3rd century BC to roughly 2000 AD
Project description
The translation in English is slightly more elaborate than the Dutch version of Project Rasquert that can be found as an open source document on my academia.edu page https://rug.academia.edu/AlbertNijboer or on the website of the Historical Society Baflo http://www.bavvelt.nl/index_htm_files/Rasquert%20Projectbeschrijving%202021.pdf
Research Interests:
This paper discusses six tombs from Sveta Lucija (Slovenia) that were bought in 1923 from Prof. Rudolf Much (Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute... more
This paper discusses six tombs from Sveta Lucija (Slovenia) that were bought in 1923 from Prof. Rudolf Much
(Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute
of Archaeology. These tombs, excavated in 1890, form part of one of the largest Hallstatt cemeteries known archaeologically,
consisting of thousands of tombs. Walking 40 km north from Sveta Lucija, one can reach the Triglav, at 2864 m the highest
mountain of the Julian Alps. The site itself is located in a valley, in a strategic location at the confluence of two rivers emerging
in these Alps. During the Iron Age, Sveta Lucija functioned as a transitional site between Italy, the Balkans and Austria. This
frontier character is reflected in its entire history, starting in the 8th century BC, when it emerged as a settlement centre. The
article provides a biography of old study collections since c. 1850 and discusses the role of some influential archaeologists in
the history of the excavations at Sveta Lucija since the 1880s. The article then contextualizes the artefacts held at Groningen,
concentrating on the 7th to early 5th century BC. The numerous excavations in the burial grounds and settlement for more
than a century, make Sveta Lucija one of the more thoroughly investigated European Iron Age settlement centres with a couple
of hundred inhabitants. Finally, the article introduces the still-enigmatic development of the site from an Iron Age centre
to a Roman village, addressing the decline of its archaeological visibility during the intervening centuries and its correlation
with Celtic groups.
(Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute
of Archaeology. These tombs, excavated in 1890, form part of one of the largest Hallstatt cemeteries known archaeologically,
consisting of thousands of tombs. Walking 40 km north from Sveta Lucija, one can reach the Triglav, at 2864 m the highest
mountain of the Julian Alps. The site itself is located in a valley, in a strategic location at the confluence of two rivers emerging
in these Alps. During the Iron Age, Sveta Lucija functioned as a transitional site between Italy, the Balkans and Austria. This
frontier character is reflected in its entire history, starting in the 8th century BC, when it emerged as a settlement centre. The
article provides a biography of old study collections since c. 1850 and discusses the role of some influential archaeologists in
the history of the excavations at Sveta Lucija since the 1880s. The article then contextualizes the artefacts held at Groningen,
concentrating on the 7th to early 5th century BC. The numerous excavations in the burial grounds and settlement for more
than a century, make Sveta Lucija one of the more thoroughly investigated European Iron Age settlement centres with a couple
of hundred inhabitants. Finally, the article introduces the still-enigmatic development of the site from an Iron Age centre
to a Roman village, addressing the decline of its archaeological visibility during the intervening centuries and its correlation
with Celtic groups.
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Bronpublicaties over de periode van de 3 de eeuw voor tot 2000 na Chr. Projectbeschrijving voor 23 eeuw nederzettingsgeschiedenis op een wierde aan de Waddenzee
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The final proofs of this paper were received in June 2021. It is published as Chapter 21, pages 313-327 in: Gleba, M, Marín-Aguilera, B. & B. Dimova (eds.). Making Cities. Economies of production and urbanization in Mediterranean Europe,... more
The final proofs of this paper were received in June 2021. It is published as Chapter 21, pages 313-327 in: Gleba, M, Marín-Aguilera, B. & B. Dimova (eds.). Making Cities. Economies of production and urbanization in Mediterranean Europe, 1000–500 BC. Forthcoming by the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK. ISBN: 978-1-913344-06-1
Open Access paper
See: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/328684
The creation of the urban, Classical World that during the Roman Empire finally covered for centuries the whole Mediterranean and beyond emerges as a coastal phenomenon in a period of transformation after the 12th century BC collapse in its Eastern half, representing the Late Bronze Age palatial system with its embassy trading for long-distance overseas exchange. During the Iron Age, it is accompanied by nucleation and eventually the rise of city-states in specific coastal regions of the Mediterranean. It comes with technological transmission starting with the structural use of iron in Italy and on the Iberian Peninsula from the 10th century BC onwards. Subsequently other metallurgical know-how, concepts of monumental architecture, the alphabet, metrological units and novel ceramic production techniques were introduced till around 700/600 BC. Definitely not all of these innovations became anchored everywhere, creating an elusive set of correlations steered somewhat by the rate of entanglement and centralization feasible. It surfaces along the coast with local, mostly land-locked groups and initially seafaring Phoenicians forming elite networks for exchange and stimulating local surplus production. It is the concept of the ‘swallow merchant/artisan’ that seems to prevail, circulating between home and host communities resulting in imported objects and a relatively limited output of the commodities produced during their stay abroad. Shared incentives were crucial, though the scale of involvement fluctuated considerably per territory. During the 9th century BC the rate of exchange intensified leading to ‘settled swallows’ in some regions of the Western Mediterranean and the foundation of Carthage. From ca. 800 BC onwards, Greek-speaking groups moved autonomously westwards, especially to Sicily and southern Italy; groups such as the Euboeans with their relatively short-lived overseas trading relations of the 8th century BC.
Open Access paper
See: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/328684
The creation of the urban, Classical World that during the Roman Empire finally covered for centuries the whole Mediterranean and beyond emerges as a coastal phenomenon in a period of transformation after the 12th century BC collapse in its Eastern half, representing the Late Bronze Age palatial system with its embassy trading for long-distance overseas exchange. During the Iron Age, it is accompanied by nucleation and eventually the rise of city-states in specific coastal regions of the Mediterranean. It comes with technological transmission starting with the structural use of iron in Italy and on the Iberian Peninsula from the 10th century BC onwards. Subsequently other metallurgical know-how, concepts of monumental architecture, the alphabet, metrological units and novel ceramic production techniques were introduced till around 700/600 BC. Definitely not all of these innovations became anchored everywhere, creating an elusive set of correlations steered somewhat by the rate of entanglement and centralization feasible. It surfaces along the coast with local, mostly land-locked groups and initially seafaring Phoenicians forming elite networks for exchange and stimulating local surplus production. It is the concept of the ‘swallow merchant/artisan’ that seems to prevail, circulating between home and host communities resulting in imported objects and a relatively limited output of the commodities produced during their stay abroad. Shared incentives were crucial, though the scale of involvement fluctuated considerably per territory. During the 9th century BC the rate of exchange intensified leading to ‘settled swallows’ in some regions of the Western Mediterranean and the foundation of Carthage. From ca. 800 BC onwards, Greek-speaking groups moved autonomously westwards, especially to Sicily and southern Italy; groups such as the Euboeans with their relatively short-lived overseas trading relations of the 8th century BC.
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Chapter 9 in: Attema, P.A.J. & A.J. Bronkhorst (eds.), 2020. The People and the State. Material culture, social structure, and political centralisation in Central Italy (800-450 BC) from the perspective of ancient Crustumerium (Rome,... more
Chapter 9 in: Attema, P.A.J. & A.J. Bronkhorst (eds.), 2020. The People and the State. Material culture, social structure, and political centralisation in Central Italy (800-450 BC) from the perspective of ancient Crustumerium (Rome, Italy). Groningen: University of Groningen / Groningen Institute of Archaeology & Barkhuis, pp. 153-94.
Book and cover design: S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.Image editing: A.J. Bronkhorst & S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.
ISBN printed book: 9789493194236ISBN
e-book: 9789493194243
Book and cover design: S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.Image editing: A.J. Bronkhorst & S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.
ISBN printed book: 9789493194236ISBN
e-book: 9789493194243
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The iron votive offerings from Votive Deposit I at Satricum (8th to 6th centuries BC) are presented in combination with the evidence for loeal iron production. The introduetion of iron production in Central Italy is briefly diseussed in... more
The iron votive offerings from Votive Deposit I at Satricum (8th to 6th centuries BC) are presented in combination with the evidence for loeal iron production. The introduetion of iron production in Central Italy is briefly diseussed in order to establish a frarnework for the situation encountered at Satrieum. This is supplemented by metallographic analyses of some of the 7th century BC iron artefacts from the settlement excavations. The paper is completed by an appendix recording all the iron artefacts known from S atricum.
https://ugp.rug.nl/Palaeohistoria/issue/view/3327
https://ugp.rug.nl/Palaeohistoria/issue/view/3327
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Seth Bernard. 2018. Building in mid-Republican Rome: labor, architecture, and the urban economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 978-0-19-087878-8 £ 55 Review by Albert J. Nijboer, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of... more
Seth Bernard. 2018. Building in mid-Republican Rome: labor, architecture, and the urban economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 978-0-19-087878-8 £ 55
Review by Albert J. Nijboer, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands; A.J.Nijboer@rug.nl
Edited version published in Antiquity, Volume 93, Issue 370 August 2019 , pp. 1105-1106
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.124
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 August 2019
On Academia.edu you find the author version; handed in April 29, 2019; 750 to 1000 words requested; 1044 words on April 29th
Review by Albert J. Nijboer, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands; A.J.Nijboer@rug.nl
Edited version published in Antiquity, Volume 93, Issue 370 August 2019 , pp. 1105-1106
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.124
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 August 2019
On Academia.edu you find the author version; handed in April 29, 2019; 750 to 1000 words requested; 1044 words on April 29th
Research Interests:
At Celano (Abruzzo region, Italy), rare tumulus tombs of the Final Bronze Age were excavated, yielding waterlogged sarcophagi of oak wood. Two tombs are dated by Wiggle Match Dating (WMD) using the conventional 14C method. This shows... more
At Celano (Abruzzo region, Italy), rare tumulus tombs of the Final Bronze Age were excavated, yielding waterlogged sarcophagi of oak wood. Two tombs are dated by Wiggle Match Dating (WMD) using the conventional 14C method. This shows that the tumuli were erected around 1025±25 BC, while the associated artefacts in the sarcophagi refer to the final stages of the Bronze Age (FBA) in Italy.
Related fibulae as the ones found in both tombs at Celano are recovered in limited numbers all over the Italian Peninsula and even in Croatia and nearby regions (Glogović 2003; von Merhart 1969, pls. 4, 5, 7).
Our date of 1050-1000 BC for the last stages of the Bronze Age in Italy has consequences for the beginning of the Iron Age, which should start around 1000-950 BCE, an assessment that is consistent with other radiocarbon sequences obtained for Italy, such as the sequence for Latium Vetus and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean.
Related fibulae as the ones found in both tombs at Celano are recovered in limited numbers all over the Italian Peninsula and even in Croatia and nearby regions (Glogović 2003; von Merhart 1969, pls. 4, 5, 7).
Our date of 1050-1000 BC for the last stages of the Bronze Age in Italy has consequences for the beginning of the Iron Age, which should start around 1000-950 BCE, an assessment that is consistent with other radiocarbon sequences obtained for Italy, such as the sequence for Latium Vetus and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean.
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Abstract The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary... more
Abstract
The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary attributes, hardness and malleability. Both qualities of iron/steel could and were manipulated during smelting of the iron-ores and the subsequent smiting. It created perfect implements of all kinds, most of which can nowadays still be bought in hardware stores. The paper examines the structural, generic introduction of this novel metal in mainly Italy and Spain/Portugal. It presents well-published sites where relatively much early iron was excavated in combination with related radiocarbon dates. It turns out that the intrinsic qualities of iron are appreciated mainly in iron/steel knives from the 10th century BC onwards after which the repertoire of iron tools and weapons rapidly enlarged till it became the prevailing metal for all tools and weapons in a couple of centuries. The technological transfer involved, appears related to the Phoenicians, who crossed the whole Mediterranean from the 11th – 10th century BC onwards, well before the establishment of permanent overseas settlements. Local overland networks on the Italian Peninsula and in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula resulted in the distribution of the early iron artefacts. In Italy the accompanying technological know-how seems to have spread along these landlocked arteries as well.
Another benefit in this transition from bronze to iron is the availability of terrestrial metal-ores; iron-ores are far more ubiquitous than coper- and tin-ores necessary for the manufacture of bronze. Therefore, the growing use of iron as a base-metal and the local/regional exploitation of iron-ores inevitably resulted in its devaluation. This process of deflation is best recorded in the Near and Middle East from the 11th – 10th centuries BC onwards. However, it must successively have occurred in the western Mediterranean, especially during the 8th century BC and later. These intricate topics concerning the introduction of iron are described with moderation since the associated archaeological data for the 10th and 9th century BC are improving but still remain somewhat patchy.
The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary attributes, hardness and malleability. Both qualities of iron/steel could and were manipulated during smelting of the iron-ores and the subsequent smiting. It created perfect implements of all kinds, most of which can nowadays still be bought in hardware stores. The paper examines the structural, generic introduction of this novel metal in mainly Italy and Spain/Portugal. It presents well-published sites where relatively much early iron was excavated in combination with related radiocarbon dates. It turns out that the intrinsic qualities of iron are appreciated mainly in iron/steel knives from the 10th century BC onwards after which the repertoire of iron tools and weapons rapidly enlarged till it became the prevailing metal for all tools and weapons in a couple of centuries. The technological transfer involved, appears related to the Phoenicians, who crossed the whole Mediterranean from the 11th – 10th century BC onwards, well before the establishment of permanent overseas settlements. Local overland networks on the Italian Peninsula and in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula resulted in the distribution of the early iron artefacts. In Italy the accompanying technological know-how seems to have spread along these landlocked arteries as well.
Another benefit in this transition from bronze to iron is the availability of terrestrial metal-ores; iron-ores are far more ubiquitous than coper- and tin-ores necessary for the manufacture of bronze. Therefore, the growing use of iron as a base-metal and the local/regional exploitation of iron-ores inevitably resulted in its devaluation. This process of deflation is best recorded in the Near and Middle East from the 11th – 10th centuries BC onwards. However, it must successively have occurred in the western Mediterranean, especially during the 8th century BC and later. These intricate topics concerning the introduction of iron are described with moderation since the associated archaeological data for the 10th and 9th century BC are improving but still remain somewhat patchy.
Research Interests:
The archaeology of death in pre-Roman Italy frequently focuses on important issues such as social stratification, gender roles and ancestor cult. Central Italy, taken as the regions Etruria, Latium Vetus or Old Latium, the Sabina Tiberina... more
The archaeology of death in pre-Roman Italy frequently focuses on important issues such as social stratification, gender roles and ancestor cult. Central Italy, taken as the regions Etruria, Latium Vetus or Old Latium, the Sabina Tiberina and the Faliscan-Capenate area, was however home to various Peoples and is diverse in many aspects. This variation is mirrored in the funerary record and reveals differences between main centres in each of the four above-mentioned regions. For example, the wealth as deposited in tombs fluctuated considerably per centre and period as if status differences were less expressed in some settlements than in others. Local, cultural choices in funerary rites, and even per clan, are examined in this paper in the broader context of identity. It will address issues such as child burials and the structural presence of elaborate warrior tombs in Etruria during the eight century BC while they hardly occur in Latium Vetus and the other regions. The point of departure will be our excavations at Crustumerium at the crossing into these four regions since the interpretation of its funerary record remains puzzling due to assimilation of diverse cultural traits of the surrounding Peoples and its traditional rituals and ceremonies encasing death (www.Crustumerium.nl; Attema et al. 2016).
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Archaeological evidence for economic transformations, pre-monetary exchange and urbanisation in central Italy from 800 to 400 BC Contents List of illustrations Acknowledgements Preface Chapter I FRAMEWORK 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2... more
Archaeological evidence for economic transformations, pre-monetary exchange and urbanisation in central Italy from 800 to 400 BC
Contents
List of illustrations
Acknowledgements
Preface
Chapter I FRAMEWORK
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Theoretical background 7
1.3 Chronology 15
1.4 Method of study 18
1.5 Agricultural foundations 20
1.6 Urbanisation 24
1.7 Economic development 29
1.8 Social and cultural development 46
Chapter II POTTERY
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 General geological perspective 58
2.3 Preparation of raw materials 62
2.4 Forming and finishing methods 64
2.5 Firing 73
2.6 Archaeological evidence 79
2.6.1 Satricum 79
2.6.2 Lavinium 91
2.6.3 Laurentina-Acqua Acetosa 96
2.6.4 Caere 99
2.6.5 Acquarossa 111
2.6.6 Poggio Civitate 113
2.6.7 Marzabotto 118
2.7 Ancient literary texts 126
2.8 Conclusion 128
Chapter III METALS
3.1 Introduction 135
3.2 Gold and silver 142
3.3 Copper alloys 144
3.4 Iron 150
3.5 Resources 162
3.6 Archaeological evidence 165
3.6.1 Pithekoussai 165
3.6.2 Satricum 168
3.6.3 Caere 184
3.6.4 Acquarossa 185
3.6.5 Gran Carro 187
3.6.6 Lago dell'Accesa 188
3.6.7 Populonia 189
3.6.8 Poggio Civitate 193
3.6.9 Marzabotto 196
3.7 Conclusion 202
Chapter IV STANDARDISATION AND PRE-MONETARY EXCHANGE
4.1 Introduction 207
4.2 Weights 210
4.3 Volume 223
4.4 Length 229
4.5 Marzabotto 230
4.6 Conclusion 233
Chapter V EPILOGUE
Samenvatting 247
Appendix Iron artefacts which are recorded at Satricum 257
Bibliography 262
Contents
List of illustrations
Acknowledgements
Preface
Chapter I FRAMEWORK
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Theoretical background 7
1.3 Chronology 15
1.4 Method of study 18
1.5 Agricultural foundations 20
1.6 Urbanisation 24
1.7 Economic development 29
1.8 Social and cultural development 46
Chapter II POTTERY
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 General geological perspective 58
2.3 Preparation of raw materials 62
2.4 Forming and finishing methods 64
2.5 Firing 73
2.6 Archaeological evidence 79
2.6.1 Satricum 79
2.6.2 Lavinium 91
2.6.3 Laurentina-Acqua Acetosa 96
2.6.4 Caere 99
2.6.5 Acquarossa 111
2.6.6 Poggio Civitate 113
2.6.7 Marzabotto 118
2.7 Ancient literary texts 126
2.8 Conclusion 128
Chapter III METALS
3.1 Introduction 135
3.2 Gold and silver 142
3.3 Copper alloys 144
3.4 Iron 150
3.5 Resources 162
3.6 Archaeological evidence 165
3.6.1 Pithekoussai 165
3.6.2 Satricum 168
3.6.3 Caere 184
3.6.4 Acquarossa 185
3.6.5 Gran Carro 187
3.6.6 Lago dell'Accesa 188
3.6.7 Populonia 189
3.6.8 Poggio Civitate 193
3.6.9 Marzabotto 196
3.7 Conclusion 202
Chapter IV STANDARDISATION AND PRE-MONETARY EXCHANGE
4.1 Introduction 207
4.2 Weights 210
4.3 Volume 223
4.4 Length 229
4.5 Marzabotto 230
4.6 Conclusion 233
Chapter V EPILOGUE
Samenvatting 247
Appendix Iron artefacts which are recorded at Satricum 257
Bibliography 262
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Abstract: Defensive systems of main settlements in the region around Rome are diverse during the period 950–300 BC. They consist originally of natural defences in the form of steep hillsides, trenches as well as monumental earthworks with... more
Abstract: Defensive systems of main settlements in the region around Rome are diverse during the period 950–300 BC. They consist originally of natural defences in the form of steep hillsides, trenches as well as monumental earthworks with or without stone walls. Often an efficient combination of fortification works is recorded to prevent the construction of full-blown artificial battlements around the entire settlement with sizes up to 200 ha. Rome is the exception because it became, within its fortification, at least twice as large as its Etruscan peers around 600–550 BC. The beginning of the construction of full-size city walls with rectangular stones is disputed. They became more common from the 6th century BC onwards. The full circuit, retaining walls made of massive polygon stones, expands the number of options for battlements but seem hardly constructed any longer after the 3rd century BC. Some issues regarding concepts of fortification in central Italy are reviewed. The paper presents cases of fortifications at main sites around Rome such as Veii, Ardea and Crustumerium revealing that concepts of defences were frequently modified once the perimeter of a proto-urban/urban settlement was established. These cases are subsequently integrated to address the long-standing debate on Rome’s Esquiline agger and an argument on the rise of the Roman state.
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This provides you with one page of the review on page 536-540 of Journal of Roman Archaeology (JRA), Vol 30, 2017.
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Abstract: In this chapter a divide is presented between the economies of: 1. The Early and Middle Orientalizing period (730–640/630), with its lavish levels of wealth and conspicuous consumption as documented in funerary rituals. This... more
Abstract: In this chapter a divide is presented between the economies of:
1. The Early and Middle Orientalizing period (730–640/630), with its lavish levels of wealth and conspicuous consumption as documented in funerary rituals. This phase also records the emergence of monumental architecture, tombs and infrastructure; and
2. The Late Orientalizing period (640/630–580), with its rising urbanization, increasing workshop mode of production and expanding markets for better quality, mass-produced commodities.
The shift between this divide is exemplified by the transition from huts to houses during the Late Orientalizing period but can also be illustrated by the imitation of luxury products in more modest materials. Stylistic conformity and devaluation were the result, revealing close relations between the various crafts. The economy remained largely landlocked. The increasing exploitation of the available resources rose gradually, starting from patterns that became established during the eight century.
However, during the seventh century, the scale and differentiation of the economy in Etruria enlarged significantly assisted by considerable population growth. Surveys have shown that the countryside around major centers became more and more inhabited with minor settlements. Hierarchies of craft workers evolved with differences between primary, secondary and tertiary settlements. Specialization was most advanced in the capitals of the rising city-states. The demand for ceramics during the late seventh century probably established early nucleation of pottery workshops at key sites such as Veii, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci, and Vetulonia. At secondary settlements the process of craft specialization
occurred as well but not to the same extent as in the main power centers.
Market conditions and exchange by quantification were more developed in the trading sites along the coast for the management of long-distance exchange with overseas traders. Most local exchange was still reciprocal and by barter. Many farmers lived in or near the key centers and
acquired progressively more products from specialized workshops, reflecting the growth of interior markets.
Uncertainties remain about the economic role of war and of rising institutions. It is probable that ongoing economic growth created opportunities for many and that enduring warfare was absent
to some extent as long as the surrounding hinterland of the rising Etruscan city-states was not fully exploited and dominated. Institutions were predominantly run by the leading families of various clans. By managing labor and exchange, their hold on the increasingly more complex economy of Etruria had become considerable.
Keywords: Standardization, urbanization, settlement hierarchy, workshop mode of production, expanding demand
1. The Early and Middle Orientalizing period (730–640/630), with its lavish levels of wealth and conspicuous consumption as documented in funerary rituals. This phase also records the emergence of monumental architecture, tombs and infrastructure; and
2. The Late Orientalizing period (640/630–580), with its rising urbanization, increasing workshop mode of production and expanding markets for better quality, mass-produced commodities.
The shift between this divide is exemplified by the transition from huts to houses during the Late Orientalizing period but can also be illustrated by the imitation of luxury products in more modest materials. Stylistic conformity and devaluation were the result, revealing close relations between the various crafts. The economy remained largely landlocked. The increasing exploitation of the available resources rose gradually, starting from patterns that became established during the eight century.
However, during the seventh century, the scale and differentiation of the economy in Etruria enlarged significantly assisted by considerable population growth. Surveys have shown that the countryside around major centers became more and more inhabited with minor settlements. Hierarchies of craft workers evolved with differences between primary, secondary and tertiary settlements. Specialization was most advanced in the capitals of the rising city-states. The demand for ceramics during the late seventh century probably established early nucleation of pottery workshops at key sites such as Veii, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci, and Vetulonia. At secondary settlements the process of craft specialization
occurred as well but not to the same extent as in the main power centers.
Market conditions and exchange by quantification were more developed in the trading sites along the coast for the management of long-distance exchange with overseas traders. Most local exchange was still reciprocal and by barter. Many farmers lived in or near the key centers and
acquired progressively more products from specialized workshops, reflecting the growth of interior markets.
Uncertainties remain about the economic role of war and of rising institutions. It is probable that ongoing economic growth created opportunities for many and that enduring warfare was absent
to some extent as long as the surrounding hinterland of the rising Etruscan city-states was not fully exploited and dominated. Institutions were predominantly run by the leading families of various clans. By managing labor and exchange, their hold on the increasingly more complex economy of Etruria had become considerable.
Keywords: Standardization, urbanization, settlement hierarchy, workshop mode of production, expanding demand
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Abstract: In economic terms the clearest features for Etruria during EIA 1 (1000/950–800 BCE) are: – The increasing role of a landlocked network of exchange crossing from northeast to southwest Italy with Etruria at its core. This... more
Abstract: In economic terms the clearest features for Etruria during EIA 1 (1000/950–800 BCE) are:
– The increasing role of a landlocked network of exchange crossing from northeast to southwest Italy with Etruria at its core. This network was managed by part-time traders who gained advantages over the rest of the population by dominating exchange and communication.
– The growing exploitation of the local metal ores due to a gradual substitution of copper-alloy tools and weapons by those of iron.
For EIA 2 (800–730 BCE) there is evidence for:
– Accelerated population growth.
– Craft specialization on account of politically motivated demands of the emerging upper classes for prestige goods.
– The definite opening of the existing exchange network to overseas merchants/craftsmen from the Levant and Euboea.
Food, shelter and clothing are the three economic necessities of life. In Etruria, everybody seems to have had access to these necessities. Shelter during the whole Early Iron Age consisted of huts that were probably constructed with communal labor by extended families or by clans. Clothing and textiles were produced in most households, mainly as additional—though labor-intensive—tasks for women. For the rest, the production of food or agriculture constituted 90–95% of the labor. The
remaining 5—10% was for activities such as mining, metalworking, salt production and a limited amount for trade and political-religious services.
Agricultural land in Etruria was predominantly collective and probably belonged to clans. Some rising families within each clan, possibly those managing long-distance exchange, started to control labor of their fellows and thus claimed part of the productivity. For economic progress, it seems to have been essential that the rising upper class found ways to collect and dispose of surplus production.
This probably gave rise to economic inequality in return for social-economic protection.
Keywords: Exchange network, craft specialization, land, agriculture
– The increasing role of a landlocked network of exchange crossing from northeast to southwest Italy with Etruria at its core. This network was managed by part-time traders who gained advantages over the rest of the population by dominating exchange and communication.
– The growing exploitation of the local metal ores due to a gradual substitution of copper-alloy tools and weapons by those of iron.
For EIA 2 (800–730 BCE) there is evidence for:
– Accelerated population growth.
– Craft specialization on account of politically motivated demands of the emerging upper classes for prestige goods.
– The definite opening of the existing exchange network to overseas merchants/craftsmen from the Levant and Euboea.
Food, shelter and clothing are the three economic necessities of life. In Etruria, everybody seems to have had access to these necessities. Shelter during the whole Early Iron Age consisted of huts that were probably constructed with communal labor by extended families or by clans. Clothing and textiles were produced in most households, mainly as additional—though labor-intensive—tasks for women. For the rest, the production of food or agriculture constituted 90–95% of the labor. The
remaining 5—10% was for activities such as mining, metalworking, salt production and a limited amount for trade and political-religious services.
Agricultural land in Etruria was predominantly collective and probably belonged to clans. Some rising families within each clan, possibly those managing long-distance exchange, started to control labor of their fellows and thus claimed part of the productivity. For economic progress, it seems to have been essential that the rising upper class found ways to collect and dispose of surplus production.
This probably gave rise to economic inequality in return for social-economic protection.
Keywords: Exchange network, craft specialization, land, agriculture
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Outline of review article published in the Journal of Roman Archaeology Vol. 28, 2015, 513-522
Research Interests:
This paper discusses the effect of a revision of the absolute chronology around 800-750 BC on the reading of events that led to the foundation of Greek settlements in Southern Italy in the subsequent period, from ca. 750 BC onwards. This... more
This paper discusses the effect of a revision of the absolute chronology around 800-750 BC on the reading of events that led to the foundation of Greek settlements in Southern Italy in the subsequent period, from ca. 750 BC onwards. This stage is labelled here “prospecting phase”, the period of time reflected in the Odyssey, prior to the establishment of permanent overseas settlements in the Western Mediterranean by Phoenician city-states, Euboeans and other Greek communities. The following topics are addressed:
1. Update on the chronological debate “The Iron Age in the Mediterranean”
2. Some Radiocarbon results referring to contexts in Italy of the 8th century BC (Francavilla
Marittima and the warrior tomb of Tarquinia) and
3. Why do dates in the CAC clutter around 770-760 BC?
1. Update on the chronological debate “The Iron Age in the Mediterranean”
2. Some Radiocarbon results referring to contexts in Italy of the 8th century BC (Francavilla
Marittima and the warrior tomb of Tarquinia) and
3. Why do dates in the CAC clutter around 770-760 BC?
Research Interests:
"""""Abstract Aspects of regionalism and globalism are especially noticeable in the Orientalising phenomenon during the Iron Age, a cultural transformation that touched various, coastal areas of almost the entire Mediterranean but that... more
"""""Abstract
Aspects of regionalism and globalism are especially noticeable in the Orientalising phenomenon during the Iron Age, a cultural transformation that touched various, coastal areas of almost the entire Mediterranean but that resulted in diverse adaptations per region. In this context, the transition of Iron Age banqueting traditions is discussed that incorporated features of the Levantine marzeah, a social institution with upperclass male meetings, music and the consumption of meat and wine. In addition, the marzeah has a correlation with death and funerary rituals. Certain tombs with male weapon burials from the 10th to 8th centuries BC in the Levant, Greece and Italy combine characteristics of warrior ideology, ancestor cults and funerary banquets. Both in Greece and Italy, formal aspects of the marzeah were singled out, eventually resulting in the symposion and symposium customs of Classical antiquity, which are better understood. These specific Iron Age gatherings as documented in tombs, but which also took place at trading sites, in the homes of the elite and around sanctuaries, were conducive for the Orientalising phenomenon, a period in which various goods and ideas from the Levant were selected and accommodated, especially in those areas of the Mediterranean that became urban during the 7th and 6th centuries BC.
Published in: F. DE ANGELIS (ED.). 2013. Regionalism and Globalism in Antiquity; Exploring Their Limits. Colloquia Antiqua, 7. Leuven: Peeters Publishers, pp. 95-125.
"
Aspects of regionalism and globalism are especially noticeable in the Orientalising phenomenon during the Iron Age, a cultural transformation that touched various, coastal areas of almost the entire Mediterranean but that resulted in diverse adaptations per region. In this context, the transition of Iron Age banqueting traditions is discussed that incorporated features of the Levantine marzeah, a social institution with upperclass male meetings, music and the consumption of meat and wine. In addition, the marzeah has a correlation with death and funerary rituals. Certain tombs with male weapon burials from the 10th to 8th centuries BC in the Levant, Greece and Italy combine characteristics of warrior ideology, ancestor cults and funerary banquets. Both in Greece and Italy, formal aspects of the marzeah were singled out, eventually resulting in the symposion and symposium customs of Classical antiquity, which are better understood. These specific Iron Age gatherings as documented in tombs, but which also took place at trading sites, in the homes of the elite and around sanctuaries, were conducive for the Orientalising phenomenon, a period in which various goods and ideas from the Levant were selected and accommodated, especially in those areas of the Mediterranean that became urban during the 7th and 6th centuries BC.
Published in: F. DE ANGELIS (ED.). 2013. Regionalism and Globalism in Antiquity; Exploring Their Limits. Colloquia Antiqua, 7. Leuven: Peeters Publishers, pp. 95-125.
"
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The paper discusses the commotion regarding the absolute chronology of the 10th to 8th century BC in the Mediterranean. The debate on the absolute dates during the Iron Age has become confused by the various independent positions taken by... more
The paper discusses the commotion regarding the absolute chronology of the 10th to 8th century BC in the Mediterranean. The debate on the absolute dates during the Iron Age has become confused by the various independent positions taken by scholars from diverse Mediterranean regions. This state of affairs is the main topic addressed.
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This contribution discusses the inherent problem with the word colonisation in recent academic discourse. It advocates the use and definition, preferably with archaeological parameters, of a whole range of other denominators for the rich... more
This contribution discusses the inherent problem with the word colonisation in recent academic discourse. It advocates the use and definition, preferably with archaeological parameters, of a whole range of other denominators for the rich record of crossing borders, inter-regional encounters, frontier situations and overseas settlements. Colonisation refers to the seemingly inevitable colony, and thus directs us to the possible end result of a process that is accompanied by countless variations and that occurred in many historical periods, for example in antiquity as well as in more recent times. Focusing on the colony as the outcome of the process goes hand in hand with an extreme case of teleological reasoning, of ‘evolutionary-ladder’ history. It tends to throw out an array of data that documents exchange and encounters of a different kind. It counteracts the historicity of the process. This will be illustrated with a discussion of early Greek imports and their local imitations in Iron Age Italy and of evidence for the rise of Kaapstad/Cape Town (South Africa) and the Dutch enclave at Deshima (Japan) during the 17th–19th centuries AD. One of the problems with colonisation from a Western perspective is that it tends to negate its multi-ethnic character, and thus wipes out other participating groups and the so-called peoples without history. This is a particular problem for archaeology which, as a discipline, studies exactly these peoples. In history the final establishment of a colony follows a long-term process and depends much on original social-economic conditions in the land of arrival. The first overseas settlers hoped to prosper but depended in the beginning on relations with local groups. Thus, it is far more interesting to compare the societies of the resident communities with those of the incoming settlers than just to concentrate on the culture that eventually gained the upper hand. For archaeology it requires an integration of pre- and proto-historical data about the original population with evidence documenting incoming groups. Unfortunately the regional and chronological specialisation of scholars, as well as ideology and politics, makes this a tough exercise.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Since 2006, the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) has been involved in the excavation of the Monte Del Bufalo necropolis at Crustumerium. The investigation yielded tens of tombs dating to the 7th and 6th century BC. The excavations... more
Since 2006, the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) has been involved in the excavation of the Monte Del Bufalo necropolis at Crustumerium. The investigation yielded tens of tombs dating to the 7th and 6th century BC. The excavations took place in close collaboration with the SSBAR (Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma). The article discusses three female tombs that stand out when compared to other contemporaneous tombs at Crustumerium. In addition, these three tombs have much in common, in time but also in content and location. This article contains a description of the burial and funerary ritual of each tomb and subsequently will elaborate on the social status of the women, expressed in the artefacts with which they were interred. We will suggest identifying the women buried in tombs 71, 76 and 232, as mistresses of a main household in Crustumerium.
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Research Interests:
"The recent publication of the family tomb, no. 1 at Achziv in northern Israel, makes it possible to relate the Phoenician homeland to several archaeological contexts along the shores of the Mediterranean during the tenth century BC. In... more
"The recent publication of the family tomb, no. 1 at Achziv in northern Israel, makes it possible to relate the Phoenician homeland to several archaeological contexts along the shores of the Mediterranean during the tenth century BC. In this paper four of these contexts are examined because of their connotations:
1. The oldest layer, Phase 1, of the Phoenician family Tomb no. 1 at Achziv dated to the tenth century BC
2. Toumba Tomb 79 at Lefkandi in Euboea (Greece), dated around 900 BC
3. The Town Deposit at Huelva having an average radiocarbon date from 930 to 830 BC
4. The River Deposit at Huelva with a tenth century BC date
These contexts illustrate the scale of the Orientalising phenomenon in the Mediterranean during the Early Iron Age. It is concluded that the Phoenicians crossed the whole Mediterranean and beyond from the tenth century BC onwards."
1. The oldest layer, Phase 1, of the Phoenician family Tomb no. 1 at Achziv dated to the tenth century BC
2. Toumba Tomb 79 at Lefkandi in Euboea (Greece), dated around 900 BC
3. The Town Deposit at Huelva having an average radiocarbon date from 930 to 830 BC
4. The River Deposit at Huelva with a tenth century BC date
These contexts illustrate the scale of the Orientalising phenomenon in the Mediterranean during the Early Iron Age. It is concluded that the Phoenicians crossed the whole Mediterranean and beyond from the tenth century BC onwards."
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This paper is a tribute to Dr. M.W. Stoop and discusses the considerable changes in the reading of archaeological evidence on ancient Greek colonisation in the 1960-1970s and in the early 21st century BC. Within one to two generations of... more
This paper is a tribute to Dr. M.W. Stoop and discusses the considerable changes in the reading of archaeological evidence on ancient Greek colonisation in the 1960-1970s and in the early 21st century BC. Within one to two generations of archaeologists, data indicating some form of import, colonisation and acculturation are placed within an almost conflicting context; dominant versus non-dominant groups; inclusive versus exclusive of other ethnic parties. The paper advocates the use and definition, preferably with archaeological parameters, of a whole range of other denominators for the rich record of crossing borders, overseas encounters, frontier situations and settlements abroad. Colonisation refers to the seemingly inevitable colony and thus directs us to the possible end result of a process that is accompanied by countless variations and that occurred in many historical periods, for example in antiquity as well as in more recent times. Focusing on the colony as the outcome of the process goes hand in hand with an extreme case of teleological reasoning, of ‘evolutionary-ladder’ Western history. It tends to throw out an array of data that documents exchange and encounters of a different kind. It counteracts the historicity of the process. This did seem to matter less in the 1960-1970s than it does at present. Diverging views on colonisation will be illustrated with a discussion of early Greek imports and their local imitations in Iron Age Italy and of evidence for the rise of Kaapstad/Cape Town (South Africa) and the Dutch enclave at Deshima (Japan) during the 17th–19th centuries AD. One of the problems with colonisation from a Western perspective is that it tends to negate its multi-ethnic character and thus wipes out other participating groups and the so-called peoples without history. This is a particular problem for archaeology that, as a discipline, studies exactly these peoples. In history the final establishment of a colony follows a long-term process and depends much on original social-economic conditions in the land of arrival. The first overseas settlers hoped to prosper but depended in the beginning on relations with local groups. Thus, it is at present far more interesting to compare the societies of the resident communities with those of the incoming settlers than just to concentrate on the culture that eventually gained the upper-hand, as was customary one or two generations ago. For archaeology it requires an integration of pre- and proto-historical data about the original population with evidence documenting incoming groups. Unfortunately the regional and chronological specialisation of scholars, as well as ideology and politics, makes this a tough exercise.
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The focus of this article is on the excavation of a Late Bronze Age site with evidence for salt production, the investigation of a ca. 120 m long section eroded by the sea that contains evidence for the production of amphorae in the Roman... more
The focus of this article is on the excavation of a Late Bronze Age site with evidence for salt production, the investigation of a ca. 120 m long section eroded by the sea that contains evidence for the production of amphorae in the Roman Republican period, and the excavation of a lime kiln of subrecent date.
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""Abstract: The paper describes the import of artefacts with a Levantine connotation in Italy from the Late Bronze and Iron Age (1200-750/700 BC). Most of these artefacts will have been transported by Phoenician traders. Some of the goods... more
""Abstract: The paper describes the import of artefacts with a Levantine connotation in Italy from the Late Bronze and Iron Age (1200-750/700 BC). Most of these artefacts will have been transported by Phoenician traders. Some of the goods are clearly Phoenician while others are local imitations based on Levantine models. Besides Phoenician imports, the paper will present a reconstruction of the cultural impact of contacts with the Levant, which is especially perceptible in the adoption and selection of oriental status markers during the period 850 to 700 BC. On account of the archaeological evidence, the following reconstruction is presented for contacts between Italy and the Levant:
- From 1200 BC to ca. 850 BC the contacts appear to be sporadic and indicate an exploration phase.
- From ca. 850 to 750/700 BC, the term proto-Orientalizing is suggested for phase A of the Orientalizing phenomenon that coincides with the late Villanovan tombs containing a few artefacts marked by a Levantine connotation. Some of these tombs are discussed.
- From 750/700 till 580 BC one can maintain the reconstruction of the conventional Orientalizing period in Italy for phase B of the Orientalizing phenomenon starting with the Tombe Principesche dating around 750/725 BC. This date more or less coincides with the transition Late Villanovan to Etruscan.
"
The proofs of the article have been atached. For the final, published text, one needs to consult "Beyond the Homeland". For example, in the final article, Figure 8 is different since Casale Del Fosso Tomb 871 at Veio does not contain a lions' head rhyton.
- From 1200 BC to ca. 850 BC the contacts appear to be sporadic and indicate an exploration phase.
- From ca. 850 to 750/700 BC, the term proto-Orientalizing is suggested for phase A of the Orientalizing phenomenon that coincides with the late Villanovan tombs containing a few artefacts marked by a Levantine connotation. Some of these tombs are discussed.
- From 750/700 till 580 BC one can maintain the reconstruction of the conventional Orientalizing period in Italy for phase B of the Orientalizing phenomenon starting with the Tombe Principesche dating around 750/725 BC. This date more or less coincides with the transition Late Villanovan to Etruscan.
"
The proofs of the article have been atached. For the final, published text, one needs to consult "Beyond the Homeland". For example, in the final article, Figure 8 is different since Casale Del Fosso Tomb 871 at Veio does not contain a lions' head rhyton.
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Nijboer, A.J./ P.A.J. Attema 2011, Cultural characteristics of the ancient community living at Crustumerium and the excavations of the Groningen Institute of Archaeology at the Monte Del Bufalo necropolis, in Atti del XVII Congresso Internazionale di Archeologia Classica; Incontri tra Culture nel Mondo Mediterraneo Antico, Rome, September 22-26, 2008.more
Riassunto: Nonostante esista un generale accordo sul fatto che la differenza etnica tra Latini, Etruschi e Sabini si rifletta nelle testimonianze archeologiche delle tribù/clan che vivevano in quelle tre regioni confinanti, è possibile... more
Riassunto: Nonostante esista un generale accordo sul fatto che la differenza etnica tra Latini, Etruschi e Sabini si rifletta nelle testimonianze archeologiche delle tribù/clan che vivevano in quelle tre regioni confinanti, è possibile che, dove queste ultime si incontrano, ci si debba aspettare una mescolanza dei vari aspetti culturali; potrebbe essere questo il caso di Crustumerium.
L’architettura funeraria crustumina mostra infatti una miscela di tipi di tombe delle diverse regioni. L’amalgama degli specifici tratti culturali è anche percepibile nei ritrovamenti del Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) che hanno avuto luogo in tre campagne a Crustumerium, nei mesi di luglio 2006, luglio 2007 e luglio 2008. Alcune tombe scavate e studiate dal GIA, datate tra l’800 e il 550 a.C., possono infatti contribuire a chiarire le differenze tra i contesti Latini, Etruschi e Sabini.
In questo contributo presenteremo, tra le altre, la tomba a camera MDB 222, in uso da parte di una famiglia nel tardo periodo orientalizzante e nell’età arcaica. La presenza di una tomba databile al VI secolo a.C. a Crustumerium è atipica per Latini; allo stato attuale della documentazione, nel Latium Vetus, si conoscono infatti pochissime tombe databili a quest’età. Nei nostri scavi, è stato anche possibile recuperare alcune forme di impasto “White on Red”, ceramica che non è caratteristica del record archeologico laziale. Essa è infatti perlopiù diffusa nell’Etruria meridionale e nella regione falisca/capenate/sabina. Nonostante questi esempi di miscelazioni culturali, la maggioranza dei ritrovamenti nelle tombe indagate è tuttavia tipico dei contemporanei sepolcreti del Latium Vetus.
Abstract: Although it is generally agreed that the ethnic distinction between the Latin, Etruscan and Sabine communities is reflected in the archaeological record of the tribes/clans living in these three neighbouring regions, one can expect a blend of cultural assemblages in the territory where the three regions meet, as can be argued for Crustumerium. Thus the funerary architecture at Crustumerium reveals a mixture of regional tomb types. The amalgam of specific cultural traits is also reflected in the finds by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) during two campaigns at Crustumerium, in July 2006 and July 2007. Some tombs that the GIA excavated and studied, dating from 800 to 550 BC, are of interest for the discussion of the archaeological differences between Latin, Etruscan and Sabine assemblages. In this paper we shall present amongst others, the MDB Chamber Tomb 222 in use by a family during the Late Orientalising and early Archaic period. The existence of 6th century BC tombs at Crustumerium is a-typical for Latium Vetus, where 6th century BC tombs are hardly known up to date. Our excavations also revealed some interesting, white-on-red, impasto vessels that are neither distinctive for the Latial archaeological record. White-on Red ceramics are mainly distributed in Southern Etruria and the Faliscan/Capenate/Sabine region. Notwithstanding these examples of cultural blending, the majority of finds in the tombs we have excavated are also found in the contemporaneous cemeteries of Latium Vetus.
L’architettura funeraria crustumina mostra infatti una miscela di tipi di tombe delle diverse regioni. L’amalgama degli specifici tratti culturali è anche percepibile nei ritrovamenti del Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) che hanno avuto luogo in tre campagne a Crustumerium, nei mesi di luglio 2006, luglio 2007 e luglio 2008. Alcune tombe scavate e studiate dal GIA, datate tra l’800 e il 550 a.C., possono infatti contribuire a chiarire le differenze tra i contesti Latini, Etruschi e Sabini.
In questo contributo presenteremo, tra le altre, la tomba a camera MDB 222, in uso da parte di una famiglia nel tardo periodo orientalizzante e nell’età arcaica. La presenza di una tomba databile al VI secolo a.C. a Crustumerium è atipica per Latini; allo stato attuale della documentazione, nel Latium Vetus, si conoscono infatti pochissime tombe databili a quest’età. Nei nostri scavi, è stato anche possibile recuperare alcune forme di impasto “White on Red”, ceramica che non è caratteristica del record archeologico laziale. Essa è infatti perlopiù diffusa nell’Etruria meridionale e nella regione falisca/capenate/sabina. Nonostante questi esempi di miscelazioni culturali, la maggioranza dei ritrovamenti nelle tombe indagate è tuttavia tipico dei contemporanei sepolcreti del Latium Vetus.
Abstract: Although it is generally agreed that the ethnic distinction between the Latin, Etruscan and Sabine communities is reflected in the archaeological record of the tribes/clans living in these three neighbouring regions, one can expect a blend of cultural assemblages in the territory where the three regions meet, as can be argued for Crustumerium. Thus the funerary architecture at Crustumerium reveals a mixture of regional tomb types. The amalgam of specific cultural traits is also reflected in the finds by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) during two campaigns at Crustumerium, in July 2006 and July 2007. Some tombs that the GIA excavated and studied, dating from 800 to 550 BC, are of interest for the discussion of the archaeological differences between Latin, Etruscan and Sabine assemblages. In this paper we shall present amongst others, the MDB Chamber Tomb 222 in use by a family during the Late Orientalising and early Archaic period. The existence of 6th century BC tombs at Crustumerium is a-typical for Latium Vetus, where 6th century BC tombs are hardly known up to date. Our excavations also revealed some interesting, white-on-red, impasto vessels that are neither distinctive for the Latial archaeological record. White-on Red ceramics are mainly distributed in Southern Etruria and the Faliscan/Capenate/Sabine region. Notwithstanding these examples of cultural blending, the majority of finds in the tombs we have excavated are also found in the contemporaneous cemeteries of Latium Vetus.
The paper will briefly introduce the session “Long-distance contacts and Acculturation in central Italy from 1000 to 700 BC” that was organised for the XVII International Congress on Classical Archaeology in Rome, September 22-26, 2008.... more
The paper will briefly introduce the session “Long-distance contacts and Acculturation in central Italy from 1000 to 700 BC” that was organised for the XVII International Congress on Classical Archaeology in Rome, September 22-26, 2008.
The other contributions to this session discuss contacts with various regions to the North, West and East of Italy but do not introduce the pan-Adriatic koinè and therefore the article will open with a brief review of data for exchange between East Italy and the regions on the opposite side of the Adriatic. Evidence for these contacts increased during the 8th century BC as is demonstrated by excavations at sites such as Verucchio in the province of Emilia Romagna. Some elite tombs from this site can act as an example of developments that are also traced in other Italian regions, meaning the selection and gradual spread of Levantine artefacts and symbols of power within a Late Villanovan context during the 8th century BC.
Subsequently the article focuses on the internal network of Iron Age centres crossing from South to North Italy by examining the mounting deposition of amber and iron in tombs. The spread of iron and its technology is reconstructed as emerging during the 10th century BC, being locally worked in the whole Peninsula during the 9th century BC and more widely employed during the following 8th century BC. The general adoption of iron during the 9th century BC in Italy is reconstructed as a regional process on account of typical artefact types produced at some key sites.
The cultural shift referred to, emerges from 850-800 BC onwards, when the elite of Italy became buried with a growing number of artefact types that refer to the Levant and the Eastern Mediterranean. The Orientalising idiom of the artefacts and symbols of power supplemented and replaced those of Villanovan origin with their link to central Europe, north of the Alps. This cultural redirection was not just restricted to goods but also affected architecture, burial customs and religion. There were direct, personal contacts with people from the Near East since not only the form of the artefacts is mimicked but also their function. The Orientalising phenomenon came to shape several aspects of society in central Italy and was important for the rise of City States/Early States, which were formed on the sound foundations of stratified Iron Age/Villanovan centres. This cultural shift is presented here as one of longue durée, lasting at least 75 to 100 years. Thus distinctions and preferences of the select few triggered the hybridization process that resulted in the archaeological characteristics of the subsequent Orientalising period (ca. 725-580 BC) documenting centralisation and urbanisation.
The other contributions to this session discuss contacts with various regions to the North, West and East of Italy but do not introduce the pan-Adriatic koinè and therefore the article will open with a brief review of data for exchange between East Italy and the regions on the opposite side of the Adriatic. Evidence for these contacts increased during the 8th century BC as is demonstrated by excavations at sites such as Verucchio in the province of Emilia Romagna. Some elite tombs from this site can act as an example of developments that are also traced in other Italian regions, meaning the selection and gradual spread of Levantine artefacts and symbols of power within a Late Villanovan context during the 8th century BC.
Subsequently the article focuses on the internal network of Iron Age centres crossing from South to North Italy by examining the mounting deposition of amber and iron in tombs. The spread of iron and its technology is reconstructed as emerging during the 10th century BC, being locally worked in the whole Peninsula during the 9th century BC and more widely employed during the following 8th century BC. The general adoption of iron during the 9th century BC in Italy is reconstructed as a regional process on account of typical artefact types produced at some key sites.
The cultural shift referred to, emerges from 850-800 BC onwards, when the elite of Italy became buried with a growing number of artefact types that refer to the Levant and the Eastern Mediterranean. The Orientalising idiom of the artefacts and symbols of power supplemented and replaced those of Villanovan origin with their link to central Europe, north of the Alps. This cultural redirection was not just restricted to goods but also affected architecture, burial customs and religion. There were direct, personal contacts with people from the Near East since not only the form of the artefacts is mimicked but also their function. The Orientalising phenomenon came to shape several aspects of society in central Italy and was important for the rise of City States/Early States, which were formed on the sound foundations of stratified Iron Age/Villanovan centres. This cultural shift is presented here as one of longue durée, lasting at least 75 to 100 years. Thus distinctions and preferences of the select few triggered the hybridization process that resulted in the archaeological characteristics of the subsequent Orientalising period (ca. 725-580 BC) documenting centralisation and urbanisation.
Research Interests:
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Abstract: The radiocarbon dates from the archaeological stratum at Huelva, Tartessos (south-west Spain) that contains the oldest Phoenician material in the western Mediterranean so far recovered, are presented and interpreted. The quality... more
Abstract: The radiocarbon dates from the archaeological stratum at Huelva, Tartessos (south-west Spain) that contains the oldest Phoenician material in the western Mediterranean so far recovered, are presented and interpreted. The quality of the radiocarbon determinations is assessed as excellent. The archaeological interpretation of these radiocarbon dates is more intricate since the implications are significant. First the archaeological stratum as found at Huelva is examined, followed by a discussion on other high quality radiocarbon determinations in the Western Mediterranean including those from the earliest settlement layers of Carthage. Secondly the chronology of the early Phoenician advance into the Western Mediterranean is debated. A final aspect discussed in relation to the age and character of the Huelva deposit, is its intriguing link with a much debated account in the Bible mentioning Tarshish, King Hiram I of Tyre, Solomon and their search for precious metals and other luxuries. The radiocarbon dates presented in relation with its archaeological context, document that the Phoenicians crossed the whole Mediterranean, from Tyre to Huelva, from onwards the first half of the 9th century BC if not before.
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The paper presents data on a pre-monetary system based on metallic weight standards. Two of these weights and a pair of scales have been found in the Latin site at Borgo le Ferriere (Satricum). The first of these weight units corresponds... more
The paper presents data on a pre-monetary system based on metallic weight standards. Two of these weights and a pair of scales have been found in the Latin site at Borgo le Ferriere (Satricum). The first of these weight units corresponds to the so-called ‘Roman-Oscan’ pound and was excavated in a settlement context dated around 650 BC; the second corresponds to the so-called ‘Campanian’ pound and was found in the oldest votive deposit dated to ca. 725-540 BC. In the same votive deposit a pair of scales was found which, because of its dimension, can be described as a jewelers’ balance. The use of weight-standards at Satricum is closely linked with some activities in a proto-urban center like local production of artefacts and exchange.
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Models of craft specialization are presented and related to jewelers’ workshops. These general models are illustrated with ethnographic accounts of jewelers’ workshops from Africa and with archaeological case studies. The contexts of... more
Models of craft specialization are presented and related to jewelers’ workshops. These general models are illustrated with ethnographic accounts of jewelers’ workshops from Africa and with archaeological case studies. The contexts of these workshops generate far more detailed information than the models of craft specialization anticipate. Many of the variables defined by the models do not apply while examining the social-economic conditions in which the various jewelers had to work. Thus poly-functional workshops are discussed producing mainly luxury goods in Etruria during the period 750-600 BC as well as itinerant jewelers in NW-Europe in the early Middle Ages.
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The paper for Peroni discusses in detail three contexts of the 9th and early 8th century BC from Francavilla Marittima in Calabria, from Castel di Decima in Latium Vetus and from Bologna that have features in common. The tombs are amongst... more
The paper for Peroni discusses in detail three contexts of the 9th and early 8th century BC from Francavilla Marittima in Calabria, from Castel di Decima in Latium Vetus and from Bologna that have features in common. The tombs are amongst others related by a fascination for goods and ideas from the Levant, for example, through a specific type of bowl given the designation Coppa di tipo Peroni or Coppa Peroni in honour of Prof. Peroni, one of the great masters of Italian archaeology.
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ABSTRACT. In this paper, we present an overview of radiocarbon dating contributions from Groningen, concerning 9 sites from around the Mediterranean region: Israel, Sinai (Egypt), Jordan, Spain, Tunisia, and Italy. Full date lists of the... more
ABSTRACT. In this paper, we present an overview of radiocarbon dating contributions from Groningen, concerning 9 sites from around the Mediterranean region: Israel, Sinai (Egypt), Jordan, Spain, Tunisia, and Italy. Full date lists of the 9 sites are presented. Our 14C dates are discussed in terms of present actual chronological debates. We show that all our 14C dates coherently support a “high chronology” for the Iron Age in each respective area of the Mediterranean region.
Research Interests: Phoenician Punic Archaeology, Bronze And Iron Age In Mediterrarranean (Archaeology), Iron Age, Early Iron Age, and Early Iron Age, Late Iron Age, Roman period, Late Antiquity, typology, chronology, distribution, function, fibulae, weapons, tools, harness, metal vessels, writing equipment, balances and weights, small finds
Two excavation campaigns of the University of Groningen at Monte Del Bufalo, Crustumerium. Preliminary results and future plans. In the summers of 2006 and 2007, a team of the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) headed by Peter... more
Two excavation campaigns of the University of Groningen at Monte Del Bufalo, Crustumerium. Preliminary results and future plans.
In the summers of 2006 and 2007, a team of the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) headed by Peter Attema and Bert Nijboer, excavated various tombs of the Monte Del Bufalo cemetery. The excavations were carried out as part of a collaboration project between the GIA and the Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma (SSBAR) in the person of Francesco di Gennaro.
In the summers of 2006 and 2007, a team of the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) headed by Peter Attema and Bert Nijboer, excavated various tombs of the Monte Del Bufalo cemetery. The excavations were carried out as part of a collaboration project between the GIA and the Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma (SSBAR) in the person of Francesco di Gennaro.
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Added a PdF-file of this PhD-thesis to my academia.edu page, March 2018; see above.
Since the thesis had no index, one can now search the document.
One can also consult www.lcm.rug.nl under 'publications'.
Since the thesis had no index, one can now search the document.
One can also consult www.lcm.rug.nl under 'publications'.
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This article reports on fieldwork carried out in three campaigns between 2000 and 2002 by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology on the coast between present-day Nettuno and Torre Astura in south Lazio (Italy). The focus is on the... more
This article reports on fieldwork carried out in three campaigns between 2000 and 2002 by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology on the coast between present-day Nettuno and Torre Astura in south Lazio (Italy). The focus is on the excavation of a late Bronze Age site with evidence for salt production, the investigation of a ca. 120 m long section eroded by the sea that contains evidence for the production of amphorae in the Roman Republican period, and the excavation of a lime kiln of subrecent date.
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The archaeology of death in pre-Roman Italy frequently focuses on important issues such as social stratification, gender roles and ancestor cult. Central Italy, taken as the regions of Etruria, Latium Vetus or Old Latium, the Sabina... more
The archaeology of death in pre-Roman Italy frequently focuses on important issues such as social stratification, gender roles and ancestor cult. Central Italy, taken as the regions of Etruria, Latium Vetus or Old Latium, the Sabina Tiberina and the Faliscan-Capenate area, was, however, home to various Peoples and is diverse in many aspects. This variation is mirrored in the funerary record and reveals differences between main centres in each of the four above-mentioned regions. For example, wealth as deposited in tombs fluctuated considerably per centre and period, as if status differences were less expressed in some settlements than in others. Local, cultural choices in funerary rites, and even per clan, are examined in this paper in the broader context of identity. It will address issues such as child burials and the structural presence of elaborate warrior tombs in Etruria during the 8th century BC, while they hardly occur in Latium Vetus and the other regions. The point of depa...
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In: Van Wierden en Terpen. Mededelingen van de Vereniging voor Terpenonderzoek 26, 5-10. Het afgelopen jaar, 2021, is het GIA en daarmee de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, een nieuw, meerjarig onderzoek gestart in de Ommelanden dat goed... more
In: Van Wierden en Terpen. Mededelingen van de Vereniging voor Terpenonderzoek 26, 5-10.
Het afgelopen jaar, 2021, is het GIA en daarmee de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, een nieuw, meerjarig onderzoek gestart in de Ommelanden dat goed aansluit op het project Terpen- en Wierdenland waarvan de eerste fase in 2018 is afgerond ( https://terpenenwierden.nl/het-project/ ). De wierde die wordt onderzocht, is Rasquert, pal naast Baflo, in de gouw Hunsingo. De auteur van deze bijdrage is de coördinator van het onderzoek naar de 22 of 23 eeuwen geschiedenis van Rasquert. Deze inleiding is een verkorte versie van de projectbeschrijving, gecombineerd met enkele nieuwe gegevens (Nijboer 2021). Het project Rasquert wordt ondersteund door verschillende archeologen, historici en instanties terwijl het uitdrukkelijk de bedoeling is dat studenten Archeologie participeren. De eerste Master studenten zijn in september 2021 met enthousiasme begonnen aan de bestudering van de beschikbare lengteprofielen, het aardewerk en de tientallen vroegmiddeleeuwse kammen.
Het afgelopen jaar, 2021, is het GIA en daarmee de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, een nieuw, meerjarig onderzoek gestart in de Ommelanden dat goed aansluit op het project Terpen- en Wierdenland waarvan de eerste fase in 2018 is afgerond ( https://terpenenwierden.nl/het-project/ ). De wierde die wordt onderzocht, is Rasquert, pal naast Baflo, in de gouw Hunsingo. De auteur van deze bijdrage is de coördinator van het onderzoek naar de 22 of 23 eeuwen geschiedenis van Rasquert. Deze inleiding is een verkorte versie van de projectbeschrijving, gecombineerd met enkele nieuwe gegevens (Nijboer 2021). Het project Rasquert wordt ondersteund door verschillende archeologen, historici en instanties terwijl het uitdrukkelijk de bedoeling is dat studenten Archeologie participeren. De eerste Master studenten zijn in september 2021 met enthousiasme begonnen aan de bestudering van de beschikbare lengteprofielen, het aardewerk en de tientallen vroegmiddeleeuwse kammen.
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In 2004 a Villanovan necropolis was discovered near Bologna in Borgo Panigale, Via della Salute. 188 graves were explored, all (except one) cremations, mostly in simple pits although a limited number had stone slabs and in one case the... more
In 2004 a Villanovan necropolis was discovered near Bologna in Borgo Panigale, Via della Salute. 188 graves were explored, all (except one) cremations, mostly in simple pits although a limited number had stone slabs and in one case the urn was contained in a dolium. Microstratigraphic excavation of the urns permitted useful observations with regard to the ritual deposition of human remains and grave goods. Anthropological examination was conducted for all human remains and the results were considered together with the archaeological data on the grave goods. Typological preliminary observation and 14C determination obtained for 12 graves makes it possible to date the necropolis between Bologna First Phase (Bo1A- Bo1B), with a chronological range between the end of the 10th and the end of the 9th century BCE, with one later grave referring to the early second Phase (Bo 2A
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Research Interests: Geography, Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology, Museum Studies, Mediterranean prehistory, and 15 moreSurvey Methodology, Survey Research, Archaeology of salt, Archeologia, Protohistory, Iron Age, Archaeological Excavation, Archaeology of Latium, Latium vetus, Pottery studies, Prehistoric salt production, Archaelogy of Central Italy, Pontine Region Project, Pottery Archaeology, and Late Bronze Age Early Iron Age
Theory and Aims in Italian Archaeology archaeologies of Communities/Landscape; Burials and Urbanism; Chronology; Domestic Pottery/Food Systems; and Technology/Preservation are the topics covered in volume 1. Volume 2 offers: Neolithic... more
Theory and Aims in Italian Archaeology archaeologies of Communities/Landscape; Burials and Urbanism; Chronology; Domestic Pottery/Food Systems; and Technology/Preservation are the topics covered in volume 1. Volume 2 offers: Neolithic period; Bronze/Iron Age; Orientalizing/Archaic Period; Roman/Medieval Periods; and Landscape Archaeology/Surveys.
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""""""Abstract Aspects of regionalism and globalism are especially noticeable in the Orientalising phenomenon during the Iron Age, a... more
""""""Abstract Aspects of regionalism and globalism are especially noticeable in the Orientalising phenomenon during the Iron Age, a cultural transformation that touched various, coastal areas of almost the entire Mediterranean but that resulted in diverse adaptations per region. In this context, the transition of Iron Age banqueting traditions is discussed that incorporated features of the Levantine marzeah, a social institution with upperclass male meetings, music and the consumption of meat and wine. In addition, the marzeah has a correlation with death and funerary rituals. Certain tombs with male weapon burials from the 10th to 8th centuries BC in the Levant, Greece and Italy combine characteristics of warrior ideology, ancestor cults and funerary banquets. Both in Greece and Italy, formal aspects of the marzeah were singled out, eventually resulting in the symposion and symposium customs of Classical antiquity, which are better understood. These specific Iron Age gatherings as documented in tombs, but which also took place at trading sites, in the homes of the elite and around sanctuaries, were conducive for the Orientalising phenomenon, a period in which various goods and ideas from the Levant were selected and accommodated, especially in those areas of the Mediterranean that became urban during the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Published in: F. DE ANGELIS (ED.). 2013. Regionalism and Globalism in Antiquity; Exploring Their Limits. Colloquia Antiqua, 7. Leuven: Peeters Publishers, pp. 95-125. ""
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The paper discusses the commotion regarding the absolute chronology of the 10th to 8th century BC in the Mediterranean. The debate on the absolute dates during the Iron Age has become confused by the various independent positions taken by... more
The paper discusses the commotion regarding the absolute chronology of the 10th to 8th century BC in the Mediterranean. The debate on the absolute dates during the Iron Age has become confused by the various independent positions taken by scholars from diverse Mediterranean regions. This state of affairs is the main topic addressed.
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The contribution discusses a selection of tombs excavated by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) of the University of Groningen (the Netherlands), in two excavation campaigns at Monte del Bufalo, Crustumerium, during the summers... more
The contribution discusses a selection of tombs excavated by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) of the University of Groningen (the Netherlands), in two excavation campaigns at Monte del Bufalo, Crustumerium, during the summers of 2006 and 2007. The tombs selected for discussion are two well preserved early 7th century BC tombs and a chamber tomb that dates around 600 BC. Furthermore it elaborates briefly on conservation and restoration of some of the objects in GIA’ s laboratory for Conservation and Material Studies (lCM). The contribution concludes with an outline of current initiatives for prolonging and extending the collaboration project.
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The paper for Peroni discusses in detail three contexts of the 9th and early 8th century BC from Francavilla Marittima in Calabria, from Castel di Decima in Latium Vetus and from Bologna that have features in common. The tombs are amongst... more
The paper for Peroni discusses in detail three contexts of the 9th and early 8th century BC from Francavilla Marittima in Calabria, from Castel di Decima in Latium Vetus and from Bologna that have features in common. The tombs are amongst others related by a fascination for goods and ideas from the Levant, for example, through a specific type of bowl given the designation Coppa di tipo Peroni or Coppa Peroni in honour of Prof. Peroni, one of the great masters of Italian archaeology.
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This paper deals with various aspects of space in relation to workshops. Some models are presented together with archaeological evidence on the advance of workshop-production during the 8 t h and 7 t h centuries BC in contrast to the... more
This paper deals with various aspects of space in relation to workshops. Some models are presented together with archaeological evidence on the advance of workshop-production during the 8 t h and 7 t h centuries BC in contrast to the previous prevailing household production. The presented models are general and associated with : trading posts/emporia, resources and mining areas and the emergence of poleis and early city-states. The models are illustrated with examples of the location of workshops on actual sites in the Western Mediterranean.
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Since 2006, the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) has been involved in the excavation of the Monte Del Bufalo necropolis at Crustumerium. The investigation yielded tens of tombs dating to the 7th and 6th century BC. The excavations... more
Since 2006, the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) has been involved in the excavation of the Monte Del Bufalo necropolis at Crustumerium. The investigation yielded tens of tombs dating to the 7th and 6th century BC. The excavations took place in close collaboration with the SSBAR (Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma). The article discusses three female tombs that stand out when compared to other contemporaneous tombs at Crustumerium. In addition, these three tombs have much in common, in time but also in content and location. This article contains a description of the burial and funerary ritual of each tomb and subsequently will elaborate on the social status of the women, expressed in the artefacts with which they were interred. We will suggest identifying the women buried in tombs 71, 76 and 232, as mistresses of a main household in Crustumerium.
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Defensive systems of main settlements in the region around Rome are diverse during the period 950 to 300 BC. They consist originally of natural defences in the form of steep hillsides, trenches as well as monumental earthworks with or... more
Defensive systems of main settlements in the region around Rome are diverse during the period 950 to 300 BC. They consist originally of natural defences in the form of steep hillsides, trenches as well as monumental earthworks with or without stone walls. Often an efficient combination of fortification works is recorded to prevent the construction of full-blown artificial battlements around the entire settlement with sizes up to 200 hectares. Rome is the exception because it became within its fortification at least twice as large as its Etruscan peers around 600-550 BC. The beginning of the construction of full-size city walls with rectangular stones is disputed. They became more common from the 6th century BC onwards. The full circuit, retaining walls made of massive polygon stones, expands the number of options for battlements but seem hardly constructed any longer after the 3rd century BC. Some issues regarding concepts of fortification in central Italy are reviewed. The paper pr...
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Crustumerium was located about 14 km north of ancient Rome up the Tiber valley, at the boundary of the Latin territory with the lands of the Etruscans, Faliscans-Capenates and Sabines. From 850 BC to its incorporation into the Roman state... more
Crustumerium was located about 14 km north of ancient Rome up the Tiber valley, at the boundary of the Latin territory with the lands of the Etruscans, Faliscans-Capenates and Sabines. From 850 BC to its incorporation into the Roman state around 500 BC, it grew into a considerable settlement extending over a tufa plateau of 60 hectares. Of the 400 tombs legally excavated at Crustumerium until 2013, only 23 can be assigned to the Iron Age settlement. In spite of their low number, the archaeological record is sufficient to allow a discussion of the distribution, the main architectural features, the funerary rituals and the grave goods of the earliest tombs. The features of the Early Iron Age tombs will be examined, including their apparent low number and the way they are distributed in relation to the subsequent topographical development of the cemeteries, and the evolution of rituals and funerary architecture during the subsequent Orientalizing period.
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The iron votive offerings from Votive Deposit I at Satricum (8th to 6th centuries BC) are presented in combination with the evidence for local iron production. The introduction of iron production in Central Italy is briefly discussed in... more
The iron votive offerings from Votive Deposit I at Satricum (8th to 6th centuries BC) are presented in combination with the evidence for local iron production. The introduction of iron production in Central Italy is briefly discussed in order to establish a frarnework for the situation encountered at Satricum. This is supplemented by metallographic analyses of some of the 7th century BC iron artefacts from the settlement excavations. The paper is completed by an appendix recording all the iron artefacts known from Satricum.
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This paper discusses six tombs from Sveta Lucija (Slovenia) that were bought in 1923 from Prof. Rudolf Much (Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute... more
This paper discusses six tombs from Sveta Lucija (Slovenia) that were bought in 1923 from Prof. Rudolf Much (Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute of Archaeology. These tombs, excavated in 1890, form part of one of the largest Hallstatt cemeteries known archaeologically, consisting of thousands of tombs. Walking 40 km north from Sveta Lucija, one can reach the Triglav, at 2864 m the highest mountain of the Julian Alps. The site itself is located in a valley, in a strategic location at the confluence of two rivers emerging in these Alps. During the Iron Age, Sveta Lucija functioned as a transitional site between Italy, the Balkans and Austria. This frontier character is reflected in its entire history, starting in the 8th century BC, when it emerged as a settlement centre. The article provides a biography of old study collections since c. 1850 and discusses the role of some influential archaeol...
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This paper discusses the effect of a revision of the absolute chronology around 800-750 BC on the reading of events that led to the foundation of Greek settlements in Southern Italy in the subsequent period, from ca. 750 BC onwards. This... more
This paper discusses the effect of a revision of the absolute chronology around 800-750 BC on the reading of events that led to the foundation of Greek settlements in Southern Italy in the subsequent period, from ca. 750 BC onwards. This stage is labelled here “prospecting phase”, the period of time reflected in the Odyssey, prior to the establishment of permanent overseas settlements in the Western Mediterranean by Phoenician city-states, Euboeans and other Greek communities. The following topics are addressed: 1. Update on the chronological debate “The Iron Age in the Mediterranean” 2. Some Radiocarbon results referring to contexts in Italy of the 8th century BC (Francavilla Marittima and the warrior tomb of Tarquinia) and 3. Why do dates in the CAC clutter around 770-760 BC?
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The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary attributes,... more
The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary attributes, hardness and malleability. Both qualities of iron/steel could and were manipulated during smelting of the iron-ores and the subsequent smiting. It created perfect implements of all kinds, most of which can nowadays still be bought in hardware stores. The paper examines the structural, generic introduction of this novel metal in mainly Italy and Spain/Portugal. It presents well-published sites where relatively much early iron was excavated in combination with related radiocarbon dates. It turns out that the intrinsic qualities of iron are appreciated mainly in iron/steel knives from the 10th century BC onwards after which the repertoire of iron tools and weapons rapidly enlarged till it became the prevailing metal for all tools and weapons in a couple...
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At Celano (Abruzzo region, Italy), rare tumulus tombs of the Final Bronze Age were excavated, yielding waterlogged coffins of oak wood. Two tombs were dated by Wiggle-Match Dating (WMD), using the conventional 14C method. This shows that... more
At Celano (Abruzzo region, Italy), rare tumulus tombs of the Final Bronze Age were excavated, yielding waterlogged coffins of oak wood. Two tombs were dated by Wiggle-Match Dating (WMD), using the conventional 14C method. This shows that the tumuli were erected around 1030 BC, while the associated artefacts in the sarcophagi are attributable to the final stages of the Bronze Age (FBA) in Italy. Fibulae similar to those found in both tombs at Celano are recovered in modest numbers all over the Italian peninsula and even in Croatia and nearby regions (Glogović 2003; von Merhart 1969, pls. 4, 5, 7). Our date of ca. 1030 BC for the last stages of the Bronze Age in Italy has consequences for the beginning of the Iron Age, which should start around 1000-950 BC, an assessment that is consistent with other radiocarbon sequences obtained for Italy, such as the sequence for Latium Vetus and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean.
Im Mittelpunkt dieses Beitrages stehen Fragestellungen zur Herstellungstechnik von Messern und Beilen im 7. Jh. v. Chr. in Mittelitalien. Er konzentriert sich daher vor allem auf die technologischen Untersuchungen. Die Einordnung der... more
Im Mittelpunkt dieses Beitrages stehen Fragestellungen zur Herstellungstechnik von Messern und Beilen im 7. Jh. v. Chr. in Mittelitalien. Er konzentriert sich daher vor allem auf die technologischen Untersuchungen. Die Einordnung der Ergebnisse in den archäologischen Kontext bzw. in die Entwicklung der Eisentechnologie in Italien wird ausführlicher an anderer Stelle beschrieben (Nijboer 1998; 2011, 10–17).
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Abstract: This article reports on recent fieldwork carried out in three campaigns between 2000 and 2002 by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology on the coast between present-day Nettuno and Torre Astura in South Lazio (Italy). The focus... more
Abstract: This article reports on recent fieldwork carried out in three campaigns between 2000 and 2002 by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology on the coast between present-day Nettuno and Torre Astura in South Lazio (Italy). The focus is on the excavation of a late Bronze Age site with evidence for salt production, the investigation of a ca. 120 m long section eroded by the sea that contains evidence for the production of amphorae in the Roman Republican period, and the excavation of a lime kiln of subrecent date.
Research Interests: Archaeology, Landscape Archaeology, Roman Pottery, Late Bronze Age archaeology, Archaeology of salt, and 7 moreItalian Iron Age Archaeology, Archaeological field survey, Prehistoric salt production, Italian Bronze Age Archaeology, Pontine Region Project, Amphorae Production Centers, and Roman Archaeology
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Research Interests: Archaeology and Antiquity
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Abstracts International Conference "Tracing Technology. Celbrating 40 years of Archaeological Research at Satricum"- Roma 25-28 Ottobre 2017
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Crustumerium was located about 14 km north of ancient Rome up the Tiber valley, at the boundary of the Latin territory with the lands of the Etruscans, Faliscans-Capenates and Sabines. From 850 BC to its incorporation into the Roman state... more
Crustumerium was located about 14 km north of ancient Rome up the Tiber valley, at the boundary of the
Latin territory with the lands of the Etruscans, Faliscans-Capenates and Sabines. From 850 BC to its incorporation into the
Roman state around 500 BC, it grew into a considerable settlement extending over a tufa plateau of 60 hectares. Of the 400
tombs legally excavated at Crustumerium until 2013, only 23 can be assigned to the Iron Age settlement. In spite of their
low number, the archaeological record is sufficient to allow a discussion of the distribution, the main architectural features,
the funerary rituals and the grave goods of the earliest tombs. The features of the Early Iron Age tombs will be examined,
including their apparent low number and the way they are distributed in relation to the subsequent topographical development
of the cemeteries, and the evolution of rituals and funerary architecture during the subsequent Orientalizing period.
Latin territory with the lands of the Etruscans, Faliscans-Capenates and Sabines. From 850 BC to its incorporation into the
Roman state around 500 BC, it grew into a considerable settlement extending over a tufa plateau of 60 hectares. Of the 400
tombs legally excavated at Crustumerium until 2013, only 23 can be assigned to the Iron Age settlement. In spite of their
low number, the archaeological record is sufficient to allow a discussion of the distribution, the main architectural features,
the funerary rituals and the grave goods of the earliest tombs. The features of the Early Iron Age tombs will be examined,
including their apparent low number and the way they are distributed in relation to the subsequent topographical development
of the cemeteries, and the evolution of rituals and funerary architecture during the subsequent Orientalizing period.
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This paper presents the results of the radiocarbon analysis of human bones from the East Cemetery (IQ tumulus), Middle Helladic Asine. The analyses have been carried out at the Centre for Isotope Research, University of Groningen, using... more
This paper presents the results of the radiocarbon analysis of human bones from the East Cemetery (IQ tumulus), Middle Helladic Asine. The analyses have been carried out at the Centre for Isotope Research, University of Groningen, using the AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectroscopy) method. The main aim of the analysis is to elucidate the history of use of the tumulus and the surrounding extramural cemetery by comparing the absolute dates with the relative dates based on the ceramic offerings and the internal stratigraphy of the tumulus. The establishment of a formal disposal area and the adoption of the tumulus are significant developments in the MH period, and it is therefore important to date their appearance with more precision. In addition, a more accurate reconstruction of the history of this important funerary monument gives us a better understanding of mortuary practices and social change in Asine, and in the MH mainland in general.
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A slightly adapted version of this paper was published on pp. 92 - 96 of: Crustrumerium Death and Afterlife at the Gates of Rome, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek 2016. Eds. P. Attema, J. Seubers, S. Willemsen, R. Bronkhorst, P.... more
A slightly adapted version of this paper was published on pp. 92 - 96 of:
Crustrumerium Death and Afterlife at the Gates of Rome, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek 2016. Eds. P. Attema, J. Seubers, S. Willemsen, R. Bronkhorst, P. Filippini, B. Belelli Marchesini, A. Malizia, A.M. Nielsen. Exhibition catalogue 19.05 – 23.10. 2016. ISBN 978-87-7452-345-1
Real animals and mythical creatures (Mischwesen) on Orientalising pottery
Author: Albert Nijboer
Crustrumerium Death and Afterlife at the Gates of Rome, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek 2016. Eds. P. Attema, J. Seubers, S. Willemsen, R. Bronkhorst, P. Filippini, B. Belelli Marchesini, A. Malizia, A.M. Nielsen. Exhibition catalogue 19.05 – 23.10. 2016. ISBN 978-87-7452-345-1
Real animals and mythical creatures (Mischwesen) on Orientalising pottery
Author: Albert Nijboer
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This article, based on recent fieldwork by the GIA, summarizes the ceramic evidence for protohistoric occupation in the coastal part of the Pontine Region near the present-day town of Nettuno. Data derive from three different sources:... more
This article, based on recent fieldwork by the GIA, summarizes the ceramic evidence for protohistoric occupation
in the coastal part of the Pontine Region near the present-day town of Nettuno. Data derive from three different
sources: 1. the mapping and sampling of sections exposed by marine erosion along the coastal stretch between Nettuno
and the Roman villa at Torre Astura; 2. the study of a local museum collection, containing mainly stray materials collected
in the same area; and 3. GIA surveys carried out in the inland part of the municipality of Nettuno and along the lower
streambed
of the Astura river. The ceramics of some coastal sites clearly exhibit industrial characteristics and these sites
may possibly be associated with salt extraction. As such, they fit into a wider pattern of similar sites found throughout
coastal Tyrrhenian central Italy. The ceramic data is less clear for the more inland parts of the study area, where protohistoric
sites are predominantly characterized by thin scatters of mainly undiagnostic pottery.
in the coastal part of the Pontine Region near the present-day town of Nettuno. Data derive from three different
sources: 1. the mapping and sampling of sections exposed by marine erosion along the coastal stretch between Nettuno
and the Roman villa at Torre Astura; 2. the study of a local museum collection, containing mainly stray materials collected
in the same area; and 3. GIA surveys carried out in the inland part of the municipality of Nettuno and along the lower
streambed
of the Astura river. The ceramics of some coastal sites clearly exhibit industrial characteristics and these sites
may possibly be associated with salt extraction. As such, they fit into a wider pattern of similar sites found throughout
coastal Tyrrhenian central Italy. The ceramic data is less clear for the more inland parts of the study area, where protohistoric
sites are predominantly characterized by thin scatters of mainly undiagnostic pottery.
Research Interests:
The Astura project, interim report of the 2001 and 2002 campaigns of the Groningen Institute of Archaeology along the coast between Nettuno and Torre Astura (Lazio, Italy)
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Crustumerium. Death and Afterlife at the Gates of Rome Exhibition, Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, Copenhagen from May 19 till October 23, 2016 The ancient city Crustumerium was a centre for cultural exchange and played a significant role in... more
Crustumerium. Death and Afterlife at the Gates of Rome
Exhibition, Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, Copenhagen from May 19 till October 23, 2016
The ancient city Crustumerium was a centre for cultural exchange and played a significant role in the story of the foundation of Rome. For some 1,500 year Crustumerium was merely a recurrent reference in historical sources. When in 1975 archaeologists located the city, some 15 km north of the Italian capital, it was an archaeological breakthrough of the first order, and Crustumerium has since been the object of numerous successful excavations.
The main contributors to this exhibition are the Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, SSBAR (the archaeological superintendence of Rome) and the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (University of Groningen, the Netherlands). We especially would like to thank Dr.ssa P. Filippini of the SSBAR for her support.
For more information visit:
http://www.glyptoteket.com/whats-on/calendar/crustumerium-death-and-afterlife-at-the-gates-of-rome
Exhibition, Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, Copenhagen from May 19 till October 23, 2016
The ancient city Crustumerium was a centre for cultural exchange and played a significant role in the story of the foundation of Rome. For some 1,500 year Crustumerium was merely a recurrent reference in historical sources. When in 1975 archaeologists located the city, some 15 km north of the Italian capital, it was an archaeological breakthrough of the first order, and Crustumerium has since been the object of numerous successful excavations.
The main contributors to this exhibition are the Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, SSBAR (the archaeological superintendence of Rome) and the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (University of Groningen, the Netherlands). We especially would like to thank Dr.ssa P. Filippini of the SSBAR for her support.
For more information visit:
http://www.glyptoteket.com/whats-on/calendar/crustumerium-death-and-afterlife-at-the-gates-of-rome
Research Interests:
Crustumerium ’s Monte Del Bufalo cemetery features Early Iron Age and Orientalising fossa and Archaic chamber tombs. While the first usually had a relatively elaborate set of grave gifts, the latter contain only few grave gifts. The... more
Crustumerium ’s Monte Del Bufalo cemetery features Early Iron Age and Orientalising fossa and Archaic chamber tombs. While the first usually had a relatively elaborate set of grave gifts, the latter contain only few grave gifts. The funerary architecture and associated ritual customs provide insight in the social transformation of the communities around Rome between the late Orientalising and Archaic period.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Since the summer of 2006 the Groningen Institute of Archaeology has been actively involved in the investigation of the Monte Del Bufalo necropolis at Crustumerium, an Iron Age settlement in the north of Latium Vetus. The article dwells on... more
Since the summer of 2006 the Groningen Institute of Archaeology has been actively involved in the investigation of the Monte Del Bufalo necropolis at Crustumerium, an Iron Age settlement in the north of Latium Vetus. The article dwells on the typology of the tombs and the development of the funerary ritual from the late 8th until the early 6th centuries BC. One relatively wealthy tomb cluster is dealt with in detail. In addition the article presents the preliminary results of the 2009 campaign and the research themes we intend to investigate in the upcoming years.
Research Interests:
Edited Volume of Papers. Editor, A.J. Nijboer. I made this volume available on this Academia.edu page in February 2016 after receiving requests for copies. Peeters publishers in Leuven should have back copies of Caecvlvs but since I can... more
Edited Volume of Papers. Editor, A.J. Nijboer.
I made this volume available on this Academia.edu page in February 2016 after receiving requests for copies. Peeters publishers in Leuven should have back copies of Caecvlvs but since I can not trace on their website how to order this Caecvlvs volume of 2001, I made it available on internet with the assistance of one of our excellent students at the Groningen Institute of Archaeology, Remco Bronkhorst.
I made this volume available on this Academia.edu page in February 2016 after receiving requests for copies. Peeters publishers in Leuven should have back copies of Caecvlvs but since I can not trace on their website how to order this Caecvlvs volume of 2001, I made it available on internet with the assistance of one of our excellent students at the Groningen Institute of Archaeology, Remco Bronkhorst.
Research Interests:
Crustumerium’s Monte Del Bufalo cemetery features Early Iron Age and Orientalising fossa and Archaic chamber tombs. While the first usually had a relatively elaborate set of grave gifts, the latter contain only few grave gifts. The... more
Crustumerium’s Monte Del Bufalo cemetery features Early Iron Age and Orientalising fossa and Archaic chamber tombs. While the first usually had a relatively elaborate set of grave gifts, the latter contain only few grave gifts. The funerary architecture and associated ritual customs provide insight in the social transformation of the communities around Rome between the late Orientalising and Archaic period.
Research Interests:
Short review of the publication Celti d Italia of ca. 1000 words as requested by the editors of Gnomon.