John C. Murphy

Gaspar Grande is a small satellite island about 133 hectares in area and 975 m off the north-western peninsula of Trinidad. The island is covered by tropical deciduous seasonal forest and fringed by many holiday homes and guest houses. Our 2011 observation of Didelphis marsupialis , coupled with a previous report of ‘manicous on the island’ by a long time owner of a Gaspar Grande holiday home (SPC 2007, pers. obs.), suggest that a population of these opossums is resident on the island. However, we were unable to discover any published records of wild native non-volant mammals on Gaspar Grande.

Amphibians and reptiles are among the most threatened vertebrate taxa. Protected areas represent a conservation management tool to preserve species and the Aripo Savannas Scientific Reserve in Trinidad is one example. The aim of our study was to update the species richness of amphibians and reptiles of the Aripo Savannas Scientific Reserve. Nine amphibian species and twenty-eight reptile species have previously been reported at Aripo Savannas. Our surveys detected 19 amphibian species (10 previously unrecorded) and 40 reptile species (12 previously unrecorded) in the re- serve. The amended checklist of 19 amphibians and 40 reptiles may provide opportunities for more effective conservation management measures for these species within the reserve.

The Kerala mud snake, Enhydris dussumierii Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, has long been known only from syntypes collected in the nineteenth century, but more recent specimens have provided the opportunity for molecular work. Using Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of 2200 base pairs of cytb, 16S, and c-mos, we recovered the Kerala mud snake as the sister species to the Chinese mud snake, Enhydris chinensis (Chinese–Vietnamese endemic). The DNA results establish the position of dussumierii and chinensis as separate from the Enhydris clade, and together they form the sister group to most of the other fanged homalopsids ((Bitia+Cantoria) + (Erpeton+Gerarda+Fordonia) + (Myron+Pseudoferania) + (Enhydris punctata) + (Homalopsis+Enhydris bocourti) + (Cerberus)). Here we resurrect Ferania Gray for Enhydris sieboldii Gray, establish a new genus for the E. chinensis clade (bennettii+chinensis), and apply the generic replacement name Dieurostus Berg to E. dussumierii Duméril, Bibron & Duméril. A biogeographic scenario is proposed based on the ecology, distribution and salt tolerance of the species composing a hypothesized (not supported with molecular evidence) Asian coastal lineage that is distributed from Pakistan's Indus River delta to temperate coastal China.

Two mabuyid skinks are present in Trinidad and Tobago, the Greater Windward Skink, Copeoglossum aurae Hedges and Conn and the Lesser Windward Skink, Marisora aurulae Hedges and Conn. Both lizards have a similar distribution in the southern Windward Islands, including St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, as well as the Peninsula de Paria of Venezuela, with a great deal of sympatry throughout the range.

The Rio Claro-Mayaro area of southeast Trinidad contains a variety of lowland habitats. Because access to much of the area is restricted, its herpetofauna has been poorly explored, resulting in few publications on its herpetofauna. Reported here are results of fieldwork conducted in the Rio Claro-Mayaro area between November 2009 and April 2014. Documented here is the presence in southeast Trinidad of 77 of the 106 known (excluding questionable) species that inhabit the island. Included are records from published literature, our own fieldwork, and museum specimens.

Coralsnakes of the genus Micrurus are a diverse group of venomous snakes ranging from the southern United States to southern South America. Much uncertainty remains over the genus diversity, and understanding Micrurus systematics is of medical importance. In particular, the widespread Micrurus nigrocinctus spans from Mexico throughout Central America and into Colombia, with a number of described subspecies. This study provides new insights into the phylogenetic relationships within M. nigrocinctus by examining sequence data from a broad sampling of specimens from Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The recovered phylogenetic relationships suggest that M. nigrocinctus is a species complex originating in the Pliocene and composed of at least three distinct species-level lineages. In addition, recovery of highly divergent clades supports the elevation of some currently recognized subspecies to the full species rank while others may require synonymization.

Natural history museum collections hold extremely rare, extinct species often described from a single known specimen. On occasions, rediscoveries open new opportunities to understand selective forces acting on phenotypic traits. Recent rediscovery of few individuals of Bocourt´s Terrific Skink Phoboscincus bocourti, from a small and remote islet in New Caledonia allowed to genetically identify a species of land crab in its diet. To explore this further, we CT- and MRI-scanned the head of the holotype, the only preserved specimen dated to about 1870, segmented the adductor muscles of the jaw and bones, and estimated bite force through biomechanical models. These data were compared with those gathered for 332 specimens belonging to 44 other skink species. Thereafter we recorded the maximum force needed to generate mechanical failure of the exoskeleton of a crab specimen. The bite force is greater than the prey hardness, suggesting that predation on hard-shelled crabs may be an importa...

The second Trinidad & Tobago Bioblitz was conducted 21-22 September 2013, in the Arima Valley, Trinidad, West Indies (W.I.). More than 100 volunteers helped observe, collect, and identify a diverse range of organisms: plants, fungi, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, terrestrial invertebrates and freshwater organisms. A variety of surveying methods was used, including direct observation, trapping, netting and sampling. More than 150 members of the public came to watch the volunteers work, visit information stands staffed by members of various organisations, and take part in guided walks. A total of 740 species of organisms were reported after 24 hours of surveying; this total was updated to 771 after further analysis of specimens and results

Trinidad and Tobago are home to three endemic species in the anuran genus Pristimantis, of which two (Pristimantis charlottevillensis and Pristimantis turpinorum) occur in Tobago alone and the third (Pristimantis urichi) is present on both islands. Earlier, the IUCN assessed the conservation status of these species as: P. urichi, Endangered (EN); P. charlottevillensis, Least Concern (LC); P. turpinorum, Vulnerable (VU). However, these assessments were based on very little field‐based evidence. Here, we present survey results which contributed to reassessments as LC, VU and Data Deficient for these three species, respectively. Despite the close proximity of Trinidad to northern Venezuela, the islands do not share any Pristimantis species with the mainland, which holds a rich endemicity of Pristimantis regionally. In this study, we used genetic sequencing from several island populations and compared them to northern Venezuelan endemics to assess genetic divergence for the first time. ...

A toad in the Rhinella granulosa group has been recognized as present on Trinidad since 1933. In 1965, the Trinidadian population was described as a subspecies of Bufo granulosus, B. g. beebei. It has its type locality on the island and was eventually raised to species status as B. beebei (Beebe’s toad). Recently Beebe’s toad was synonymized with Rhinella humboldti, a species with a type locality in the Magdalena Valley of western Colombia. The Magdalena Valley is separated from the Orinoco Basin by the Eastern and Merida Cordilleras. These ranges have peaks that exceed 5,000 m and an almost continuous altitude at about 3,000 m. Here we examine the morphology, advertisement calls, and mtDNA from several populations of these lowland toads to test whether the western Colombian R. humboldti and the Orinoco-Trinidad R. beebei are conspecific and form a single taxon that occurs on both sides of the Andes. The morphological, molecular, and advertisement call analyses suggest that R. humbo...

The Brown Vine Snake,Oxybelis aeneus, was until recently considered a single species, distributed from southern Arizona through the Neotropics into southeastern Brazil. However, newly conducted research restructured the species with a substantial taxonomic revision, recognizing five additional taxa (i.e.O. koehleri,O. microphthalmus,O. potosiensis,O. rutherfordi,O. vittatus) in this species complex. This revision focused on populations in North America, Central America, and northern South America while neglecting the southern portion of its distribution. Here, we examine the taxonomic history of the complex and use it along with specimen data to resurrectO. acuminatusfrom southeastern Brazil. Finally, we describe a new species from the Peruvian Amazon based on morphological characters. This work increases the species diversity of theO. aeneuscomplex to eight, and we expect further increases in biodiversity discoveries with continued exploration of the New World vine snakes.

We examine, for the first time, biogeographic patterns in a series of tropical montane coastal systems in northern South America. We use amphibians and reptiles, which constitute the most critical communities based upon the prevalence of endemic taxa, to assess the region’s biodiversity. The montane coastal system spans an east-west distance of 925 km. It includes peaks ranging from 549 m to 2765 m above sea level and encompasses the montane complexes of northern Venezuela (including Isla de Margarita), an outlier at Santa Marta (Colombia), and ranges on the islands Trinidad and Tobago. The area supports 14 family level amphibian clades and 23 family level reptile clades. Fieldwork, museum specimen surveys, and a literature review suggest that biodiversity decreases at higher elevations. Here we examine the biogeographic patterns in the region to assess the role of the montane systems as possible refugia. We also look at the possible island and sky island effects using data from alt...

Tobago is a small island on the southeast edge of the Caribbean Plate with a continental flora and fauna. Using DNA sequences from Genbank, new sequences, and morphological data from the snakesErythrolamprusepinephalus,E.melanotus,E.reginae, andE.zweifeli, the species status of specimens of a Tobago snake previously considered to beErythrolamprusreginaewas assessed.Erythrolampruszweifeli, long considered a subspecies ofE.reginae, was found to be a northern Venezuela-Trinidad endemic and the sister toE.reginae. The trans-Andean speciesE.epinephalusis shown to be non-monophyletic while the Costa Rican lineage ofE.epinephalusis weakly supported as the sister to the Tobago population. The TobagoErythrolamprusis described as a distinct taxon based upon five specimens from four localities in lower montane rainforest. Much of the new species range includes the Main Ridge Forest Reserve of Tobago, the oldest protected forest in the Western Hemisphere. All known locations fall within a 400-h...

Masked water snakes of the genus Homalopsis are abundant in the wetlands of Southeastern Asia. Currently, two speciesare recognized, the widespread H. buccata Linnaeus and the Mekong drainage endemic H. nigroventralis Deuve. On thebasis of morphology we resurrect H. hardwickii Gray and H. semizonata Blyth and describe a new species from Indochina.We establish a neotype for Coluber buccatus Linnaeus and examine the status of other names associated with this species.Homalopsis species can be distinguished from each other on the basis of dorsal scale row counts, the scales in the ocularring, and other head scale architecture. The new species, Homalopsis mereljcoxi, is distinguished from all others by itsone postocular and one postsubocular scale, and a higher dorsal scale row count (40–47 scale rows at midbody) that arereduced to more than 30 scale rows at the body’s posterior. The new species is heavily exploited for the skin trade at TonleSap, Cambodia. Homalopsis likely contains oth...

Previous molecular phylogenetic hypotheses for the Homalopsidae, the Oriental-Australian Rear-fanged Water Snakes indicate that Enhydris, the most speciose genus in the Homalopsidae (22 of 37 species), is polyphyletic and may consist of five separate lineages. We expand on earlier phylogenetic hypotheses using three mitochondrial fragments and one nuclear gene, previously shown to be rapidly evolving in snakes, to determine relationships among six closely related species: Enhydris enhydris, E. subtaeniata, E. chinensis, E. innominata, E. jagorii, and E. longicauda. Four of these species (E. subtaeniata, E. innominata, E. jagorii, and E. longicauda) are restricted to river basins in Indochina, while E. chinensis is found in southern China and E. enhydris is widely distributed from India across Southeast Asia. Our phylogenetic analyses indicate that these species are monophyletic and we recognize this clade as the Enhydris clade sensu stricto for nomenclatural reasons. Our analysis sh...

Tegus of the genera Tupinambis and Salvator are the largest Neotropical lizards and the most exploited clade of Neotropical reptiles. For three decades more than 34 million tegu skins were in trade, about 1.02 million per year. The genus Tupinambis is distributed in South America east of the Andes, and currently contains four recognized species, three of which are found only in Brazil. However, the type species of the genus, T. teguixin, is known from Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guyana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela (including the Isla de Margarita). Here we present molecular and morphological evidence that this species is genetically divergent across its range and identify four distinct clades some of which are sympatric. The occurrence of cryptic sympatric species undoubtedly exacerbated the nomenclatural problems of the past. We discuss the species supported by molecular and morphological evidence and increase the number of species in t...

During the Cenozoic, Southeast Asia was profoundly affected by plate tectonic events, dynamic river systems, fluctuating sea levels, shifting coastlines, and climatic variation, which have influenced the ecological and evolutionary trajectories of the Southeast Asian flora and fauna. We examined the role of these paleogeographic factors on shaping phylogeographic patterns focusing on a species of semiaquatic snake, Enhydris subtaeniata (Serpentes: Homalopsidae) using sequence data from three mitochondrial fragments (cytochrome b, ND4, and ATPase-2785 bp). We sampled E. subtaeniata from seven locations in three river drainage basins that encompassed most of this species' range. Genetic diversities were typically low within locations but high across locations. Moreover, each location had a unique suite of haplotypes not shared among locations, and pairwise φ(ST) values (0.713-0.998) were highly significant between all location pairs. Relationships among phylogroups were well resol...

Murphy, John C., Voris, Harold K., Auliya, Mark (2005): A New Species Of Enhydris (Serpentes: Colubridae: Homalopsinae) From The Kapuas River System, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 53 (2): 271-275, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4619182

ABSTRACT.–The Central Plain is one of the major natural regions of Thailand. It is a wide alluvial plain with little topographic relief consisting of multiple river basins. The many natural and anthropogenic wetland habitats in the region make it an ideal habitat for many ...

The presence of Hyalinobatrachium orientale in Tobago and in northeastern Venezuela is puzzling as this species is unknown from the island of Trinidad, an island often hypothesized to be a stepping-stone for the mainland fauna to colonize Tobago. A period of extended isolation on Tobago could result in the Hyalinobatrachium population becoming distinct from the mainland H. orientale. Here, we use 12S and 16S rDNA gene fragments from nine H. orientale specimens from Tobago and the mainland to assess their relationship and taxonomy, as well as the tempo and mode of speciation. The results suggest H. orientale from Venezuela and Tobago are monophyletic and the two populations diverged about 3 million years ago. This estimate corresponds with the drier climate and lower sea levels of the Pliocene glaciation periods. We hypothesize that lower sea levels resulted in land-bridge formations connecting the mainland and Tobago, with a corridor of habitat allowing H. orientale to colonize Toba...

The islands of Trinidad and Tobago form a southern extension of the Lesser Antilles. Unlike the continental island of Trinidad, the more northerly Tobago formed as an older oceanic island volcanic arc. Their reptile biodiversity reflects colonization events from the South American mainland through land bridge connections at times of glacial maxima. Most of Tobago's herpetofauna has colonized through stepping-stone

During the Cenozoic, Southeast Asia was profoundly affected by plate tectonic events, dynamic river systems, fluctuating sea levels, shifting coastlines, and climatic variation, which have influenced the ecological and evolutionary trajectories of the Southeast Asian flora and fauna. We examined the role of these paleogeographic factors on shaping phylogeographic patterns focusing on a species of semiaquatic snake, Enhydris subtaeniata (Serpentes: Homalopsidae) using sequence data from three mitochondrial fragments (cytochrome b, ND4, and ATPase—2785 bp). We sampled E. subtaeniata from seven locations in three river drainage basins that encompassed most of this species’ range. Genetic diversities were typically low within locations but high across locations. Moreover, each location had a unique suite of haplotypes not shared among locations, and pairwise ϕST values (0.713–0.998) were highly significant between all location pairs. Relationships among phylogroups were well resolved an...

Mud snakes (Serpentes: Homalopsidae) are a family of 55 described, mainly aquatic, species primarily distributed throughout mainland Southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago. Although they have been the focus of prior research, the basic relationships amongst genera and species remain poorly known. We used a combined mitochondrial and nuclear gene dataset to infer their phylogenetic relationships, using the highest levels of taxon and geographic sampling for any homalopsid phylogeny to date (62% generic and 62% species coverage; 140 individuals). Our results recover two reciprocally monophyletic groups: the fangless Brachyorrhos and its sister clade comprised of all rear-fanged homalopsids. Most genera and interspecific relationships were monophyletic and strongly supported, but intergeneric relationships and intraspecific population structure lack support. We find evidence of both undescribed diversity as well as cases of taxonomic inflation within several species. Tree-based species delimitation approaches (mPTP) support potential new candidate species as distinct from their conspecifics and also suggest that many named taxa may not be distinct species. Divergence date estimation and lineage-through-time analyses indicate lower levels of speciation in the Eocene, with a subsequent burst in diversification in the Miocene. Homalopsids may have diversified most rapidly during the Pliocene and Pleistocene, possibly in relation to tectonic shifts and sea-level fluctuations that took place in Sundaland and the Sahul Shelf. Our analyses provide new insights on homalopsid taxonomy, a baseline phylogeny for the family, and further biogeographic implications demonstrating how dynamic tectonics and Quaternary sea level changes may have shaped a widespread, diverse family of snakes.

Over the last two decades, molecular work on the reptile and amphibian fauna of the island of Trinidad (West Indies) has revealed the presence of cryptic species and island endemics resulting in the re-description of species for northern South America. In this study, we assess the taxonomy of a population of Elachistocleis sp. formerly assigned to the invalid species E. ovalis, and E. surinamensis, both present in Trinidad and throughout South America. We conduct phylogenetic, morphological, and call characteristic analyses to assess their taxonomy and discuss the phylogeography and evolutionary history of the genus. We find an Andean origin of the genus dating to the Oligocene and two sister clades within Elachistocleis with a Mid-Miocene divergence, coinciding with marine incursions at the time. We discuss their likely dispersal throughout South America following the dry-out of the Pebas mega-wetland system and attempt to find the routes of expansions, probably aided through the Amazon basin and hydrological systems towards the north and east. We find that each of the species is highly divergent and recovered in both sister clades, and we time the colonization of each Trinidad population at 2.1 and 0.5 million years ago, arriving from different regions (Venezuela and Guyana) facilitated by sea-level drops at the time. Lastly, we select a neotype for E. surinamensis from Trinidad to stabilize the nomenclature and describe the frog formerly considered E. ovalis in Trinidad as E. nigrogularis sp. nov.

The Dwarf Marsupial Frog, Flectonotus fitzgeraldi (family Hemiphractidae), has been reported to occur only in Trinidad, Tobago, and the Paria Range of Venezuela. This species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, based on its small geographic distribution and the fragmentation of its habitat, which is said to be declining both in extent and quality. Using molecular methods, we confirm herein that the three populations do belong to the same species. However, extensive presence/absence and focused population surveys show that the frog's distribution is more extensive than previously reported in both Trinidad and Venezuela. In Trinidad and Tobago, the frog is abundant in forests wherever its host plants occur, notably the bromeliad Heliconia bihai (Balisier in Trinidad; Bijao in Venezuela) and the aroid Xanthosoma jacquinii (Elephant's Ear). In Venezuela, the species is frequently found where there is suitable habitat, but an exhaustive population study is needed to diagnose its current situation. No evidence was found of habitat decline in Trinidad and Tobago, but in Venezuela the loss of habitat is evident, mainly because of subsistence agricultural activities, which have been developing in northeast Venezuela since at least 1930. The Red List status of this species is in need of revision.

The neotropical aquatic snake genus Helicops contains 19 species, some of which are oviparous, while others are viviparous. Using phylogenetic and morphological relationships, H. angulatus from the island of Trinidad (West Indies) is compared to other mainland populations. We recover H. angulatus as paraphyletic, suggesting evidence of cryptic diversity within the species, and remove Helicops cyclops Cope, 1868 from the synonymy of Helicops angulatus (Linnaeus) based on morphology; thus, increasing the number of Helicops species to 20. Previous reports suggest some populations of the widespread Helicops angulatus are oviparous. In contrast, other populations have been reported as viviparous, and the conflicting reports are discussed based upon recent literature on the evolution of viviparity. Anecdotal evidence suggests Trinidad Helicops angulatus are facultatively viviparous. The importance of conserving this unusual population, and its associated aquatic habitats, are discussed.

To facilitate biological study we define "Caribbean Islands" as a biogeographic region that includes the An-tilles, the Bahamas, and islands bordering Central and South America separated from mainland areas by at least 20 meters of water depth. The advantages of this definition are that it captures nearly all islands with endemic species and with at least some Antillean-derived species, and still circumscribes a region of high biodiversity and biogeographic significance. We argue that Caribbean islands, in this expanded sense, are also cohesive from a conservation standpoint in that they share high human population densities and similar conservation threats. A disadvantage of this definition, strictly applied, is that it includes some islands (e.g., Trinidad) that have mostly mainland species. However, we propose that researchers can increase the stringency of the definition so that it is less inclusive, and make comparisons between different definitions as needed. We provide an updated checklist with standardized common English names for the 1,013 species of amphibians and reptiles occurring in the region, along with principles for constructing common names.

Tobago is a small island on the southeast edge of the Caribbean Plate with a continental flora and fauna. Using DNA sequences from Genbank, new sequences, and morphological data from the snakes Erythrolamprus epinephalus, E. melanotus, E. reginae, and E. zweifeli, the species status of specimens of a Tobago snake previously considered to be Erythrolamprus reginae was assessed. Erythrolamprus zweifeli, long considered a subspecies of E. reginae, was found to be a northern Venezuela-Trinidad endemic and the sister to E. reginae. The trans-Andean species E. epinephalus is shown to be non-monophyletic while the Costa Rican lineage of E. epinephalus is weakly supported as the sister to the Tobago population. The Tobago Erythrolamprus is described as a distinct taxon based upon five specimens from four localities in lower montane rainforest. Much of the new species range includes the Main Ridge Forest Reserve of Tobago, the oldest protected forest in the Western Hemisphere. All known locations fall within a 400-ha area, and its total geographic distribution is likely to be less than 4,566 ha. The restricted distribution of this new snake makes it a likely candidate for threatened status. The new species also becomes another biogeographic link between northern Venezuela and Tobago.

Amphibians and reptiles are among the most threatened vertebrate taxa. Protected areas represent a conservation Nine amphibian species and twenty-eight reptile species have previously been reported at Aripo Savannas. Our surveys detected 19 amphibian species (10 previously unrecorded) and 40 reptile species (12 previously unrecorded) in the reserve. The amended checklist of 19 amphibians and 40 reptiles may provide opportunities for more effective conservation management measures for these species within the reserve.

Abstract.—An assessment of marine elapid snakes found 9% of marine elapids are threatened with extinction, and an additional 6% are Near Threatened. A large portion (34%) is Data Deficient. An analysis of distributions revealed the greatest species diversity is found in Southeast Asia and northern Australia. Three of the seven threatened species occur at Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs in the Timor Sea, while the remaining threatened taxa occur in the Philippines, Niue, and Solomon Islands. The majority of Data Deficient species are found in Southeast Asia. Threats to marine snakes include loss of coral reefs and coastal habitat, incidental bycatch in fisheries, as well as fisheries that target snakes for leather. The presence of two Critically Endangered and one Endangered species in the Timor Sea suggests the area is of particular conservation concern. More rigorous, long-term monitoring of populations is needed to evaluate the success of “conservation measures” for marine snake species, provide scientifically based guidance for determining harvest quotas,
and to assess the populations of many Data Deficient species.

The Kerala mud snake, Enhydris dussumierii Dum´eril, Bibron & Dum´eril, has long been known only from syntypes
collected in the nineteenth century, but more recent specimens have provided the opportunity for molecular work. Using
Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of 2200 base pairs of cytb, 16S, and c-mos, we recovered the Kerala mud snake as the sister
species to the Chinese mud snake, Enhydris chinensis (Chinese–Vietnamese endemic). The DNA results establish the
position of dussumierii and chinensis as separate from the Enhydris clade, and together they form the sister group to most
of the other fanged homalopsids ((Bitia+Cantoria) + (Erpeton+Gerarda+Fordonia) + (Myron+Pseudoferania) +
(Enhydris punctata) + (Homalopsis+Enhydris bocourti) + (Cerberus)). Here we resurrect Ferania Gray for Enhydris
sieboldii Gray, establish a new genus for the E. chinensis clade (bennettii+chinensis), and apply the generic replacement
name Dieurostus Berg to E. dussumierii Dum´eril, Bibron & Dum´eril. A biogeographic scenario is proposed based on the
ecology, distribution and salt tolerance of the species composing a hypothesized (not supported with molecular evidence)
Asian coastal lineage that is distributed from Pakistan’s Indus River delta to temperate coastal China.

Snakes of the genus Cerberus Cuvier, 1829 occupy a unique, widespread coastal distribution and have a salt-tolerant physiology that allows members of the genus to move across a wide range of salinities from full salt water to freshwater. Cerberus nomenclature is revised based upon morphology and builds on previous molecular studies. Three species have been recognized by recent workers, here we recognize five species: the South Asian C. rynchops (Schneider 1799); the Southeast Asian-Philippine C. schneiderii (Schlegel 1837), a new combination; the freshwater Philippine endemic C. microlepis Boulenger 1896; the Australopapuan C. australis (Gray 1842); and a new species from Micronesia. We also select a lectotype for Homalopsis schneiderii Schlegel based upon a figure published in 1837 and restrict the type locality for this species to Timor. Evidence is also presented for a population of Cerberus australis in Indonesia, west of Weber’s Line.

ABSTRACT. — Brachyorrhos Kuhl represents a terrestrial, fangless, vermivorous clade of the Homalopsidae. Most recent discussions of the genus consider it to contain two species, Coluber albus Linnaeus and Calamophis
jobiensis Meyer. These poorly known snakes have had a deeply intertwined and confused nomenclatural history. Here we review Brachyorrhos, and fi nd that B. albus is restricted to Seram and Ambon, but may be present on other nearby islands in the Seram group; Rabdion gastrotaenia Bleeker (from Buru) is assigned to the genus Brachyorrhos, and Atractocephalus raffrayi Sauvage (from Ternate) is also assigned to the same genus. The species on Halmahera is described and named B. wallacei. Meyer’s genus Calamophis is
resurrected for jobiensis and its undescribed relatives, which are endemic to the Bird’s Head region of Western Papua and Yapen Island. Brachyorrhos species are endemic to the Moluccas and possibly the surrounding area in eastern Indonesia; Calamophis also appears to belong to the Homalopsidae.

ABSTRACT. — Calamophis jobiensis Meyer disappeared into the synonymy of Brachyorrhos albus in1893. Although the holotype of jobiensis was destroyed in World War II, six museum specimens similar to jobiensis were subsequently found in three museum collections. Morphological analysis suggests that
Calamophis is a valid genus distinct from Brachyorrhos and the six museum specimens, none of which are conspecifi c with jobiensis, represent three undescribed species. Calamophis appears to be endemic to Yapen
Island in the Bird’s Head region of West Papua, Indonesia. Based upon their body form, two of the species with cylindrical bodies and stout tails appear to be cryptozoic/fossorial/ aquatic species. The third species has a remarkable lateral compression of the body, an exceptionally abbreviated tail and narrow ventrals that suggest it is an aquatic form, possibly evolved from a fossorial ancestor.

"Few species of snakes show extensive adaptations to aquatic environments and even fewer exploit the oceans. A survey of morphology, lifestyles, and habitats of 2552 alethenophidian snakes revealed 362 (14%) that use aquatic environments, are semi-aquatic, or aquatic; about 70 (2.7%) of these are sea snakes (Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae). The ancient and aquatic family Acrochordidae contains three extant species, all of which have populations inhabiting brackish or marine environments, as well as freshwater. The Homalopsidae have the most ecologically diverse representatives in coastal habitats. Other families containing species exploiting saline waters with populations in freshwater environments include: the Dipsadidae of the western hemisphere, the cosmopolitan Natricidae, the African Grayinae,
and probably a few Colubridae. Species with aquatic and semi-aquatic lifestyles are compared with more terrestrial (fossorial, cryptozoic, and arboreal) species for morphological traits and life histories that are convergent with those found in sea snakes; this may provide clues to the evolution of marine snakes and increase our understanding of snakediversity."

Abstract. The Trinidad and Tobago herpetofauna is rich in species and the numbers of species on the islands are expected to grow despite the extensive efforts previously made to study the fauna. Recent advances in molecular technology and cladistics form the basis for these changes. Cryptic species have been found to be quite common and many of these remain to be described from the islands. Here we note name changes and additions to the herpetofauna since 1997; comment on the likelihood that the island still contains species that have gone unrecognized by science; discuss the implications of cryptic species for conservation efforts; and suggest that education is the long term solution to retaining the biodiversity of Trinidad and Tobago.

ABSTRACT.– This study examines between-population variation of the Mekong Mud Snake, Enhydris subtaeniata (Bourret, 1934) in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Viet Nam, and relates the observed patterns to previously published patterns based on molecular data. Enhydris subtaeniata were collected from six representative locations throughout its range that encompassed three important river drainage basins: the Chao Phraya, the Middle Mekong and the Lower Mekong. Data on size, sexual size dimorphism, scalation, reproductive biology and diet were used to explore biogeographical patterns revealed by a previously published phylogenetic and population genetic analysis. In several cases the size and reproductive characteristics mirrored the genetic differences and habitat differences associated with the sampled locations.

When one thinks of environments occupied by reptiles, saltwater and brackish- water habitats are not the fi rst that come to mind. However, a variety of species routinely occupy marine habitats, and others are occasional visitors. Schmidt (1951) and Neill (1958) compiled global surveys of reptile species known to use brackish and saltwater environments, as well as species known to occur in habitats adjacent to the sea and estuaries. In this section, we focus on reptile species that occupy marine habitats primarily, including salt marshes, estuaries, mangroves, and other coastal environments. Among modern reptiles, snakes are by far the most successful in marine habitats, although the Galapagos Marine Iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), one crocodilian, the Salt Water Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), and seven species of sea turtles (families Cheloniidae and Dermochelyidae) also make use of this habitat. One species of fi le snake (Acrochordus granulatus, Acrochordidae) is found almost exclusively in brackish water and marine habitats. The other two species, A. javanicus and A. arafurae, are primarily freshwater species, but they too have been reported from brackish water and marine environments. Most of the 37 species of homalopsid snakes (Homalopsidae) are freshwater, semi- aquatic, and aquatic species, but at least 10 species spend part or much of their lives in brackish or salt water (Murphy 2007). See Pauwels et al. (2008) for a summary of global diversity of freshwater snakes.

Sea snakes (Subfamily Hydrophiinae, Family Elapidae) are
usually marine, but a few species have returned to freshwater.
The Hydrophiinae are the most diverse group of marine snakes today and represent a relatively recent radiation (Lukoschek and Keogh 2006). Culotta and Pickwell (1993) have compiled an extensive bibliography on the Hydrophiinae.

Sea kraits of the genus Laticauda are also included in the
family Elapidae but represent an in de pen dent lineage from
the Hydrophiinae that some recognize as a separate Subfamily
Laticau dinae. The Sea kraits are semi- aquatic in island environments, and while well adapted for marine life with a
paddle tail, they bask, mate, digest food, and lay eggs on land.
Keogh (1998), Dunson (1975a), Heatwole (1999), Heatwole,
et al. (2005), and Ineich and LaBoute (2002) have discussed
their biology.

Other lineages of lizards and snakes have scattered species or
populations that have specialized in coastal habitats. Althoughmany of these species are terrestrial or arboreal, they also use marine resources. For example, arboreal Burmese Vine Snakes (Ahaetulla fronticincta, Colubridae) ambush marine mudskippers (fish in the family Gobiidae, subfamily Oxudercinae) from arboreal perches overhanging the water (Smith 1943).

Three North American natricines, the Saltmarsh Watersnake
(Nerodia clarkii ssp.), the Marsh Brownsnake (Storeria dekayi limnetes), and the Cape Gartersnake (Thamnophis valida), are coastal snakes that use mangroves and salt marsh habitats (Conant 1969; Gibbons and Dorcas 2004; Anderson 1961; Rossman et al. 1996). Additionally, some North America
populations of the semi- aquatic pit viper, the Florida Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorous conanti), use mangroves and salt marshes (Lillywhite et al. 2008).

In the Neotropics, some species of the aquatic and semi- aquatic dipsadid genera Helicops, Hydrops, Liophis, and Tretanorhinus use freshwater and brackish water in coastal habitats to varying degrees.

In North Africa and Europe, three natricid species use
coastal habitats: the Viperine Snake, Natrix maura; the Grass
Snake, N. natrix; and the Dice Snake, N. tessellata (Schleich et al. 1996; Sindaco et al. 2006). Two African snakes (Grayia smythii and Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia) of uncertain lineages occur in brackish- water, mangrove habitats as well as in freshwater (Luiselli et al. 2002; Kelly et al. 2009).

In Southeast Asia, the Mangrove Pitviper (Cryptelytrops purpureomaculatus), the Mangrove Snake (Boiga dendrophilia), and the Hamadryad (Ophiophagus hannah) inhabit mangroves, but like the Vine Snake, these species are mostly arboreal and terrestrial, and therefore, unlikely to spend signifi cant time in
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During the Cenozoic, Southeast Asia was profoundly affected by plate tectonic events, dynamic river systems, fluctuating sea levels, shifting coastlines, and climatic variation, which have influenced the ecological and evolutionary trajectories of the Southeast Asian flora and fauna. We examined the role of these paleogeographic factors on shaping phylogeographic patterns focusing on a species of semiaquatic snake, Enhydris subtaeniata (Serpentes: Homalopsidae) using sequence data from three mitochondrial fragments (cytochrome b, ND4, and ATPase—2785 bp). We sampled E. subtaeniata from seven locations in three river drainage basins that encompassed most of this species’ range. Genetic diversities were typically low within locations but high across locations. Moreover, each location had a unique suite of haplotypes not shared among locations, and pairwise φST values (0.713–0.998) were highly significant between all location pairs. Relationships among phylogroups were well resolved and analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed strong geographical partitioning of genetic variance among the three river drainage basins surveyed. The genetic differences observed among the populations of E. subtaeniata were likely shaped by the Quaternary landscapes of Indochina and the Sunda Shelf. Historically, the middle and lower Mekong consisted of strongly dissected river valleys separated by low mountain ranges and much of the Sunda Shelf consisted of lowland river valleys that served to connect faunas associated with major regional rivers. It is thus likely that the contemporary genetic patterns observed among populations of E. subtaeniata are the result of their histories in a complex terrain that created abundant opportunities for genetic isolation and divergence yet also provided lowland connections across now drowned river valleys.

Of the more than 12,000 species and subspecies of extant reptiles, about 100 have re-entered the ocean. Among them are seven species of sea turtles and about 80 species and subspecies of sea snakes, as well as a few other species that are occasionally or regularly found in brackish waters, including various other snakes, the saltwater crocodile, and the marine iguana of the Galapagos Islands. The largest group of marine reptiles, the sea snakes, occur in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans from the east coast of Africa to the Gulf of Panama. They inhabit shallow waters along coasts, around islands and coral reefs, river mouths and travel into rivers more than 150 km away from the open ocean. A single species has been found more than 1000 km up rivers. Some have also been found in lakes. The taxonomic status of the sea snakes is still under review and no general agreement exists at the moment. The effects of the exploitation on sea snakes have been investigated in the Philippines and Australia but are almost unknown from other areas. Investigations indicate that some populations are already extinct and others are in danger of extinction in various parts of Asia. All sea turtles are endangered except one. The marine iguana of the Galapagos Islands remains vulnerable due to its limited range. Brackish water snakes are closely associated with mangrove forests and as such are subject to deforestation and coastal development schemes that result in habitat loss. In addition, some are collected for their skins. While none of the coastal species are considered in danger of extinction at the present time, many are data deficient.

BrachyorrhosSchlegel, 1826a is a terrestrial–fossorial snake genus endemic to eastern Indonesia that has been assigned to six different families and subfamilies within Colubroidea (advanced snakes) over the past ∼200 years. Here we report the first molecular sequences for Brachyorrhos and use them to test the position of the genus within snake phylogeny. Our Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood analyses of three mitochondrial and one nuclear gene strongly resolve Brachyorrhos within the rear-fanged semiaquatic Homalopsidae (Colubroidea), as the sister taxon to all other genera and sampled species.

The external morphology and systematics of Australasian homalopsid snakes are examined against the background of recent molecular work. Two new species (Myron karnsi and Myron resetari) in the genus Myron Gray 1849 are described using the external morphology commonly applied to snake species. Cantoria annulata Jong 1926 and Hypsirhina polylepis Fisher 1886 represent endemic Australasian genera;Cantoria annulata is assigned a new genus, and the genus Pseudoferania Ogilby 1891 is resurrected for Enhydris polylepis. The zoogeography of the Australasian homalopsid clade is discussed.

"Previous molecular phylogenetic hypotheses for the homalopsidae, the Oriental-Australian Rear-fanged Water Snakes indicate that Enhydris, the most speciose genus in the Homalopsidae (22 of 37 species), is polyphyletic and may consist of five separate lineages. We expand on earlier phylogenetic hypotheses using three mitochondrial fragments and one nuclear gene, previously shown to be rapidly evolving in snakes, to determine relationships among six closely related
species: Enhydris enhydris, E. subtaeniata, E. chinensis, E. innominata, E. jagorii, and E. longicauda. Four of these species (E. subtaeniata, E. innominata, E. jagorii, and E. longicauda) are restricted to river basins in ,, while E. chinensis is found in southern China and E. enhydris is widely distributed from India across Southeast Asia. Our phylogenetic analyses indicate that these species are monophyletic and we recognize this clade as the Enhydris clade sensu stricto for nomenclatural reasons. Our analysis shows that E. chinensis is sister-species to a well-supported clade comprising the remaining species of the Enhydris clade (mean p distance between E. chinensis and other in-group taxa was 13.1%, range: 12.7-13.4%). Enhydris innominata, E. longicauda and E. jagorii also formed a strongly supported clade with very low interspecific p distances (mean 0.28%, range: 0–0.46%). We were unable to resolve relationships
between E. enhydris and E. subtaeniata (mean divergence of 9.4%, range: 9.2-9.7%), and between these two species and
E. innominata, E. longicauda and E. jagorii. We summarize classical morphological (scalation and coloration) characteristics of these species in the context of the molecular phylogeny. The Enhydris clade comprises a substantial portion of the vertebrate biomass of Southeast Asia and we discuss aspects of its biogeography, morphology andsystematics."

"The Central Plain is one of the major natural regions of Thailand. It is a wide alluvial plain with little topographic relief consisting of multiple river basins. The many natural and anthropogenic
wetland habitats in the region make it an ideal habitat for many aquatic and semi-aquatic species. We document the semi-aquatic snake communities associated with aquatic habitats in the Central Plain of Thailand. We surveyed a diversity of localities in the Central Plain and documented the occurrence of 10
species based on a sample of 786 snakes. The snake communities of the region are dominated by homalopsid snakes (7 species). Enhydris enhydris, the Rainbow Water Snake, was the dominant species at all sites surveyed and accounted for 80.2% of the snakes collected. We collected data on sexual dimorphism, sex ratios, reproduction, and diet. We found that all species examined, except Homalopsis buccata, exhibited
female-biased sexual size dimorphism and we document significant differences in length and mass among Central Plain populations of E. enhydris. Sex ratios varied among populations, from male to female dominated. A large proportion of the E. enhydris examined were in reproductive condition (67.5%, n =
160). For E. enhydris, we documented clutch size based on vitellogenic follicles (mean = 16.7 ± 1.07) and oviducal eggs (mean = 11.4 ± 2.00), a positive relationship between female body length and clutch size, and a mean relative clutch mass of 0.37 ± 0.07. Diet analysis indicated that homalopsid species are piscivorous and species of the Cyprinidae were the most common diet item. Our data suggest homalopsids eat numerous,
relatively small prey items. The Central Plain snake assemblage is similar in species composition to other semi-aquatic snake communities in Indochina. The populations of E. enhydris from the Central Plain are large in body size and exhibit high reproductive effort compared to other populations of E. enhydris for which information is available. The robustness of the Central Plain population may be related to the high productivity of the wetlands of the Central Plain. We discuss historical, biogeographical, biotic, and abiotic factors that may contribute to the differences observed among semi-aquatic snake communities in the region and the differences documented among populations of E. enhydris."

"The Khorat Basin is a prominent geographic feature of Indochina, potentially important in the ecology and evolution of semi-aquaticsnake communities. We compared community structure and populationcharacteristics of semi-aquatic snakes (taxonomic focus on homalopsinesnakes) from localities located in the Khorat Basin, on the mountainous rimof the Khorat Basin, and at lower elevation sites located outside of theKhorat Basin. Species richness of semi-aquatic snakes assemblages wascomparable in and outside of the Khorat Basin (8 species). There was a highdegree of species overlap between assemblages found in and out of the basin(coefficient of similarity = 0.88), but species diversity was higher in theKhorat Basin (evenness = 0.694).
Enhydris enhydris was the strong dominantat sites located outside of the basin (evenness = 0.334). Homalopsine snakes were absent from the Khorat Basin rim sites. Snakes were over twice asabundant at sites located outside of the Khorat Basin compared to sites inthe basin. We found size sexual dimorphism for E. enhydris outside of theKhorat Basin, but not in the basin. Female snakes (E. enhydris and E. plumbea) from sites outside the Khorat Basin were larger and heavier in comparison to Khorat Basin populations. We discuss historical,biogeographical, biotic, and abiotic factors that may contribute to the observed differences."

The Danum Valley is in northern Borneo, in the Malaysian state of Sabah. This article is designed to help visitors to the Danum Valley identify snakes that they may encounter. It is by no means intended to be a complete list of the snakes found in this area, but it does include all of the snake species found by field workers from the Division of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH). The key has been designed for use by anyone who takes the time to read the instructions, and it does not require extensive prior knowledge of snake anatomy. As this field station becomes more frequently used by rainforest ecologists as well as casual visitors, human-snake encounters will increase. These encounters should not lead to the snake's death; rather they should act to increase interest and aesthetic appreciation of limbless reptiles as an integral part of Earth's biodiversity.

This study is the result of a collection made on four trips to
the Danum Valley (17 October to 3 December 1986; 9 Decemand
13 October to 6 December 1990). A total of 166 field days were spent collecting amphibians and reptiles during these four trips and they produced 161 snakes representing 36 species. A minimum of one and a maximum of eight people were in the field per day. Snakes were collected as they were encountered, and the visitors and staff of the Danum Valley Field Center contributed specimens to this collection. The collection is housed at the FMNH.

The Danum Valley Conservation Area (Figure l), latitude
5" 12' N, longitude 117" 50' E, is 438 km2 of mostly undisturbed
lowland and hill dipterocarp forest in southeastern Sabah. It is bounded to the east and south by the Segama River, and the northern boundary lies near the Danum River. It is one of the few remaining large expanses of undisturbed mixed dipterocarp forests in Borneo. Its topography rises from 150 m above sea level to 1093 m above sea level. The area has had limited numbers of forest-dwelling people living within its borders, and none are currently living there.

Although the headwaters of the Segama have been logged, commercial logging has not occurred within the area. Adjacent to
the Conservation Area are secondary forests of various ages.
Study sites in these secondary forest areas were examined.
During the four trips we have concentrated our study sites
into five macrohabitats: primary forest streams, secondary
forest streams, edge, primary forest and secondary forest.
Each specimen collected was recorded as being from one of
these macrohabitats.

Abstract.- The herpetofauna of Trinidad and Tobago is almost entirely continental and distinct from the fauna of the Lesser Antilles. Bond's Line, a salt water gap of 140 km between Grenada and Tobago, separates the two faunas. The Trinidad and Tobago herpetofauna includes as many as 129 species and subspecies and, of these, only five (3.8%) are of Lesser Antillean origin. The one frog (Eleutherodactylus johnstonei) and four lizards (Anolis aeneus, A. extremus, A. richardi, and A. trinitatis) have probably had minimal negative impact on the native herpetofauna, and they appear restricted to urban areas and other human-modified environments. Conversely, 19 extant taxa from
Trinidad-Tobago-mainland South America have been reported in the Lesser Antilles. Several of these are represented by specimens with erroneous locality data, others are one-time waifs that failed to establish a population, others represent older dispersals and current taxonomy fails to note their distinctiveness, and some have dispersed with human assistance. Thus, Bond's Line must be considered a formidable barrier for amphibians and reptiles, and the taxa that have successfully overcome the barrier from the north have mostly done so with the aid of humans.