Minerals

Is a mineral the same as a rock?

A mineral is different from a rock. A
mineral is a naturally-occurring,
generally inorganic solid that has an
orderly and well-defined chemical
composition. A rock is an aggregate of
one or more minerals. For example, coal
is a sedimentary rock and is composed
of carbon.. Every mineral is unique, but
they exhibit general characteristics.
1. Naturally-occurring- Minerals exist naturally.
Steel and synthetic diamonds are created
artificially, and therefore, are not minerals.
2. Inorganic- Minerals are limited to substances
formed through inorganic processes, and
exclude materials derived from living organisms
which involved organic processes. Coal, which
is composed of remains of plants and other
inorganic compounds, is not a mineral.
 [Link]- All liquids are and gases—even
those that are naturally formed such as
petroleum— are not considered minerals. Ice
formed in the glaciers is considered mineral but
water is not.
[Link] chemical composition- The
chemical composition of minerals should express
the exact
chemical formula with the elements and
compounds in specific scenarios. The only
exception is the atomic substitution, which is a
characteristic of certain minerals.
5. Ordered Internal Structure-The atoms in
minerals are organized in regular, repetitive
geometric pattern or crystal structure. Volcanic
glass, even if is formed naturally, is not
considered a mineral because it is amorphous
and has no form. Substances that fulfil all the
requirements but do not have an ordered
internal structure are called mineraloids.
Examples are amber, obsidian, opal and pearl.
Physical Properties of Minerals
Do you know that there are over 4660
approved minerals? The name of the mineral may
be based on the name of its discoverer, location
where the mineral was found, or the mineral’s
chemical composition or properties. The common
suffix of mineral is –ite meaning “belonging to.”
Crystal Structure
Minerals may be
classified based on their crystal
structure . Crystal structure is
a description of the orderly
geometric spatial arrangement Crystal Structures
of atoms in the internal
structure of a mineral. The six
crystal structures are shown in
table 4
Hardness
Hardness refers to the
resistance of a mineral to being
scratched. This property is
dependent on the
composition and chemical the
structure of a mineral.
crystalline
Hardness
The most common scale of
measurement is Mohs scale crated in 1812 by
German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs (1773-
1839). Measuring hardness using the Mohs
scale is described through the use of 10 mineral
indicators. A mineral with higher index can
scratch those below it. Since the minerals of the
Mohs scale are not always available, there is
another way of identifying hardness. It is
through the field hardness scale. This is done
by using common tools objects to rub or
scratch against a mineral.
Hardness
The Mohs scale of a mineral is linear and is
considered a relative scale. For example, the
scale suggest that corundum (9) is one-half as
soft as a diamond (10); but in reality, it is four
times as soft. To account for the nonlinear
discrepancy, scientists developed a
proportional measurement, known as absolute
mineral hardness, through the use of an
instrument called sclerometer. The instrument
accounts for the large difference in hardness as
one approaches the higher end of Mohs scale.
Extended MOhs Mineral Hardness Scale
Color and Streak
Minerals come in different
colors, especially mineral gems.
The mineral gems that are used to
make jewelry are rare. Examples of
mineral gems commonly referred
to as gemstones include diamond,
emerald, sapphire, ruby, opal,
aquamarine, turquoise, Colors of the different gemstones
peridot, topaz, garnet, amethyst,
jade,
and sandstone, among others.
Color and Streak
The streak of a mineral refers to
the color of the mineral in its
powdered form. You can find out
the streak of a mineral using a test
plate such as the back side of a
porcelain tile. The streak may or
may not be the same as the body Streak, the color of the powder of a mineral after
color of the mineral. The image it has been scraped across a hardened ceramic surface
below shows the color and streak of
a selected mineral.
Crystal Habit
Crystal habit refers to the overall
shape of crystal. Common shapes include
needle-like (acicular), plant
(dendritic) , like kidney-shaped (reniform),
bladed, elongated, in one direction
(prismatic and tabular.

The different crystal habits

Transparency and Luster
A mineral is considered
transparent if it allows light to pass through
and you can see any object through it like
muscovite. It is opaque if light cannot pass
through and you cannot see any object through
it like hematite. A translucent object allows
some light to pass through and object cannot
be clearly seen through it. An example is
jadeite.
Luster indicates how light is reflected off a
surface of a mineral. Some of the qualitative
terms that describe this property include:
 Metallic(galena and pyrite)- has luster
of a polished metal
 Vitreous or glassy (silicates)- has luster
of a glass
 Pearly (talc)- has thin
transparent
sheets, reminiscent of pearls
 Dull (hematite)- has little to no luster
 Greasy (halite)- resembles fat or greasy
 Silky(gypsum)- shows
parallel arrangement of fine fibers
Luster of different minerals
Cleavage refers to a mineral’s resistance to
being broken. It describes how a mineral
breaks along planes of weakness. The
quality of cleavage can be described in how
clearly or easily the mineral breaks(perfect,
good, distinct, poor, or indistinct). Cleavage
can also be described by the number and
directions of cleavage planes. Depending on
the quality, minerals may break into smooth,
flat surfaces or irregular, concentric ripples
(conchoidal). Sample Cleavage directions
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a measurement
that determines the density of a mineral.
Two minerals may have the same size but
their weight would be different. Specific
gravity is determined by comparing the
weight of a mineral relative to the weight of
an equal volume of water, using the
formula: Ratio of minerals weight to the weight of an equivalent
volume of water. Higher specific gravity.
w𝑒𝑖gℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
SG=
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 w𝑒𝑖gℎ𝑡
𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐻20
Special Properties
Some minerals exhibit special properties which include
reaction to acids, magnetic properties, and electrical
conductivity. Carbonate materials such as calcite, dolomite,
azurite, and malachite react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Minerals containing iron, such as magnetite and hematite, are
attracted by magnets. Gold, silver, and copper minerals are
good conductors of electricity.
Common Rock-Forming Minerals
There are more than 4000 officially recognized
minerals, with about a hundred added every year. However,
there are only few of these materials that are common. The
common rock-forming minerals can be classified based on
their chemical composition, The classification is shown
below.
1. Silicates which are composed mainly of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedrons (SiO42-). Silicates are the major-rock forming
minerals, including olivine ((Mg,Fe)2 SiO4) and quartz (SiO2).
2. Oxides which are consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen
anions. Common oxide minerals are magnetite (Fe3O4) and
hematite (Fe2O3).
3. Sulfides which are consist of metal cation bonded to sulfide (S2-
).They are common ore minerals along with oxides since metals
form a high proportion of the mineral. Examples are galena
(PbS) and pyrite (FeS2).
4. Sulfates consist of a metal cation bonded to the SO42
-
anionic group. They usually precipitate out of water near the
Earth’s surface. An example of sulfate is gypsum
(CaSO4!2H2O)
[Link] are
composed of a halogen ion, such as chlorine
or fluorine , which forms halite or rock salt (NaCl) and
fluorite
ion
(CaF2).(CO3 ) which bonds elements
2- as
such magnesiumare characterized
6. Carbonates to form by the calcite
presencecalcium
of carbonic
(CaMg(CO
(CaCO3)23).
) or or
 [Link] metals consist of a single metal such as copper
(Cu) and gold (Au).
8. Phosphates are made of phosphorus, oxygen and
metallic
elements. Examples are Apatite, Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH), Turquoise,
CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O
9. Hydroxides are formed from hydroxyl (OH-) in combination
with metal. Examples are Bauxite, Al(OH)3·nH2O and Limonite,
FeO(OH)·nH2O
Every part of the modern society uses minerals everyday. Minerals have
provided the materials needed for the construction of roads and buildings, the
creation of cosmetic products, and the manufacture of ceramics and useful
tools, among other things. Table 9 shows a selected list of commonly used
minerals and their uses.
 Economic Uses of Selected Minerals

Minerals Uses
Aluminum Transportation, packaging,
building/construction, and
machinery
Chromite Alloy in stainless steel,
metallurgical and chemical
industries
Feldspar Glass and ceramic industries,
enamelware, cement
Fluorite Production of hydrofluoric acid
used in ceramics, electroplating
and plastic industry
Gold Jewelry, dentistry, medicine,
coins
Gypsum Wallboard, plaster, cement
Halite Human diet, food preservation,
prepare of sodium hydroxide,
hydrochloric acid, etc.
Copper Building construction, electric,
and electronic products,
plumbing, transportation
Economic Uses of Selected Minerals

Minerals Uses
Iron Steel, pigment, cosmetics,
medicine
Lead Lead-acid batteries,
gasoline, additives,
solders,
construction

Mica Paints, plastics, roofing,

electronic equipment
Phosphate Phosphoric acid, fertilizer,
food additives
Quartz Jewelry, lamps, glass,
paints
Silica Computer chips, glass,
ceramics, cosmetics
Silver Jewlery, coins, electrical
devices
Mining Rocks and Minerals
Do you know that the Philippines have large reserves
of various kinds of minerals? In fact, it is the fifth most mineral-
rich country in the world for gold, nickel, copper, and chromite.
The reason for the abundance of these minerals is because the
Philippines is located along the Circum-Pacific Belt or “Ring of
Fire”, where the processes of volcanism and plate convergence
led to the rich deposition of both metallic and non-metallic
minerals.
The Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB), the
Philippine agency that oversees all mining activities in the
country , estimated that the Philippines has around 41-trillion
pesos-worth of untapped mineral wealth from metallic and
non-metallic minerals.
Mining Rocks and Minerals
The metallic mineral reserves in the Philippines include gold,
copper, nickel, chromite, and iron, Benguet, Masbate,
Camarines Norte,Compostela Valley, Agusan Del Sur and
Surigao del Norte have large deposits of gold and silver.
Copper with gold and silver deposits are found in Benguet,
Cebu, Zamboanga del Norte, and Nueva Visacaya. Chromite
deposits are located in Surigao del Norte and Samar. Large
deposits of Nickel are found in Palawan, Zambales, Surigao
del Norte and Surigao del Sur as well as the Dinagat Islands.
Iron deposits are located in Leyte, Bulacan, Camarines Sur,
and Zamboanga,
Mining Rocks and Minerals
The non-metallic minerals include
limestone, marble, gravel, and sand and
other quarry materials. Limestone deposits
are found in Guimaras Island, La Union, and
Pangasinan. The largest marble deposit is
found in Romblon—the reason it is called
the “marble capital of the Philippines.” The
Cobrador Island in Romblon has deposits of
rare black, gold, and green marbles.
The Philippines’metallic and non-metallic mineral
reserves and their locations.
o The mining process starts with the
discovery of the mineral ore. Mineral
ores are minerals from which metals or
other elements can be profitably
recovered. The discovery of the ore is
carried though exploration. Exploration
aims to locate the concentration of the
ore, define the extent of the
concentration, and find out the value of
the ore. These vital information are
needed in the evaluation of the financial
and technical viability of the mining
endeavor. If the decision is to develop the
Surface mining involves stripping surface vegetation and
mine, then all necessary requirements are
layers of bedrock
put in place in accordance with an
existing guideline, such as the Philippine
Mining Act of 1995.
o The next step is extraction.
Extraction of ores may be done in
one of its two types: surface mining
or underground mining. Surface
mining, which may involve strip or
open-pit mining , involves the
stripping or removal of surface
vegetation and layers of bedrock to
reach the buried ore deposits.
Underground mining consists of
digging tunnels or shafts to reach the
Underground mining involves digging tunnels to reach the
buried deposits.
buried ore deposits
o After extraction, the mineral undergoes
processing. Processing may be by
chemical or physical means. The physical
method includes crushing, grinding, and
washing. Washing enables the separation
of valuable metals/minerals from the
waste material called gangue. Since most
metals are present in ores as oxides,
carbonates, and sulphides, processing is
done through chemical means, such as in
the case of smelting (heating and
melting) and electrolysis.

Physical and chemical processing of ores

Environmental and Health Impacts
o Each mining process has
concomitant
environmental implications. For
example, ore extraction may lead
to the landscape devastation,
erosion, loss of biodiversity,
formation of sinkholes, and
pollution, among others.

The leftover dumps called tailings often damage

the environment
Environmental and Health Impacts
o Ore processing produces tailings.
Tailings are waste materials from ore
processing phase. They often contain
toxic materials such as acids and cyanide
(in gold) used in processing, and other
heavy metals such as lead and mercury
that were not fully removed. Tailings, if
not properly dumped or stored, may lead
to soil and water pollution and cause
health hazards.

The leftover dumps called tailings often damage the

environment
Environmental and Health Impacts
If not properly protected with appropriate equipment, miners may be highly
exposed to toxic materials. The health effects of toxic exposures may lead to acute and
chronic illness.
 Lead poisoning causes neurological damage, physical growth impairment, nerve
disorder, anemia, and reduced IQ, among others.
 Mercury poisoning affects the brain, kidneys, and lungs. It is associated with gold
and silver smelting.
 Silicosis and black lungis the inflammation and scarring of the lungs due to
inhalation of silica dust. Black lung is primarily caused by inhalation of coal dust.
 Asbestosis is a respiratory disease caused by inhalation of asbestos. It may also lead
to cancer.
The Philippine Mining Act of 1995
o The mining industry is governed by the Republic Act 7942 or
the Philippine Mining Act of 1995. The act was instituted to govern
the exploration, development, utilization, and processing of all mineral
resources within the territory and exclusive economic zone of the
Philippines. The implementing rules and regulations of RA 7942 provide
strict adherence to the principle of sustainable development. It means
that the needs of the present should be met without compromising the
capability of the future generations to meet their own needs, with the view
of improving of life, both now and the future. Anchored on sustainable
development, sustainable mining includes the observance of the following
guidelines:
The Philippine Mining Act of 1995
 Mining activities must always be guided by the best current
practices in environmental management to reduce the impact of
mining while efficiently protecting the environment.
 Mining activities shall be undertaken with due and equal regard
for economic and environmental considerations, as well as for
the health, public safety, social, and cultural concerns.
The Philippine Mining Act of 1995
The Mines and Geoscience Bureau (MGB) has the
administrative jurisdiction and responsibility over its regional
offices with regard to the implementation of RA 7942 .Some of its
responsibilities include:
 Management and administration of mineral lands
 Granting and cancelling of mining permits
 Énforcement and monitoring of Environmental Work Program
(EWP) and Environmental Protection and Enhancement
Program (EPEP).