Subject: AELEX 211 (SENSOR TECHNOLOGY)

Course description: This course provides knowledge and understanding on sensors field usage and their role in
control system which is divided in two topics. The first part deals with discrete and solid state devices wherein analog
and digital signal voltage are applied and interface to microcontrollers and the second parts focuses mainly on
industrial applications being used for process control, automation and robotics which includes the interfacing with
programmable logic controllers and computers.

COURSE OUTLINE:

- Different types of sensors according to: capacitance, magnetism, inductions, piezoelectric and
temperature.
- Sensor technology ( materials, surface processing, nanotechnology, types of sensors)
- Proximity sensors (magnetic proximity sensor, capacitive proximity sensor, ultrasonic proximity sensor,
and pneumatic proximity sensor.)
- Thermal sensors, LVDT, level sensor, load cells, motion sensors, accelerometer, pressure sensor,
magnetic flow meter.)

- Optical sensors ( optical proximity sensors, optical proximity sensor with fiber optic cable.)

TOPIC I.

What is Sensor?

-In electronics, a sensor is a device that detects and responds to a physical input from the environment, converting it
into a measurable electrical signal. This signal can then be used to monitor, control, or analyse a process. Essentially,
sensors act as the interface between the physical world and electronic systems.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

 Input: Sensors respond to various physical stimuli like light, heat, pressure, motion, sound, or chemical
changes.

 Conversion: The sensor converts this physical input into a corresponding electrical signal, such as a voltage,
current, or frequency change.

 Output: This electrical signal can then be used by other electronic components, like microcontrollers or
computers, to perform tasks like displaying information, triggering an action, or controlling a system.

Examples:

 Temperature sensor (thermistor): Measures temperature and outputs a voltage signal that varies with
temperature.

 Light sensor (phototransistor): Detects light intensity and converts it into an electrical signal.

 Pressure sensor (strain gauge): Measures pressure and outputs a voltage change proportional to the
pressure.

 Motion sensor (infrared sensor): Detects movement and can trigger an alarm or turn on a light.

Key functions of sensors:

 Monitoring:

Sensors can continuously track physical parameters, providing real-time data for observation and analysis.

 Control:
They can be used to automatically adjust or regulate processes based on sensed conditions.

 Automation:

Sensors play a crucial role in automated systems, enabling machines and devices to respond to their environment.

 Data acquisition:

They provide the data that enables systems to understand and interact with the physical world.

In essence, sensors are fundamental components in a wide range of electronic applications, from everyday devices to
complex industrial systems.

What is a Sensor?

Definition

An electrical sensor (also called an electronic sensor) is a device that detects a physical parameter of interest (e.g. heat,
light, sound) and converts it into electrical signal that can be measured and used by an electrical or electronic system.

The detected quantity is usually a form of energy that is analog (continuous) in nature and is converted into electrical
energy using a transducer (e.g. a microphone is a transducer that converts sound energy into electrical energy).

How Are Sensors Used?

The signal generated at the output of an electrical sensor is typically used for the purpose of making a measurement
which can then be used to trigger a subsequent response. For example, a temperature sensor could be used to measure
the temperature of a room and convert it into an electrical signal. If the measured room temperature is too low (below
a pre-determined threshold) this information could be used by an electronic system that automatically switches on a
heater to increase the temperature of the room back towards the pre-determined threshold. Alternatively, if the
measurement from the sensor indicates that the room is too hot (above a pre-determined threshold), the system could
automatically switch on an air-conditioning unit to reduce the room temperature. The common name for a sensor used
to measure temperature is a thermometer.

Nowadays, the output signal from an electrical sensor is usually processed by a digital processor. To make this
possible, the continuous analog electrical signal must first be converted into a discrete digital representation using an
Analog-to-Digital converter.

Types of Sensors

Apart from heat and sound, electrical sensors can be used to detect and measure other quantities including light,
pressure, speed, acceleration, and mass. The size of the signal produced by a sensor depends on the application e.g.
Industrial sensors produce electrical signals typically between 20 and 30V while biosensors, used in health and fitness
wearables (Figure 1) and which are used to make human body measurements, typically produce electronic signals of
only a few millivolts or even smaller.

Sensors can be categorized based on their sensing principle into capacitive, magnetic, and inductive types. Capacitive
sensors detect changes in capacitance, magnetic sensors detect magnetic fields, and inductive sensors detect changes
in inductance. These principles are used in various sensor applications, including proximity sensing, position sensing,
and more.

1. Capacitive Sensors:

- Principle: Capacitive sensors work by detecting changes in capacitance, which is an electrical property that
describes how well a device stores electrical energy. They operate by measuring the change in capacitance
between a sensing electrode and a target object.

- Detection: They can detect both conductive and non-conductive materials.

 - Applications: Capacitive sensors are used in various applications, including proximity sensing, level
sensing (e.g., detecting fluid levels in a tank), and touch-sensitive interfaces.

- Types: They can be further categorized into active and passive types, where active sensing involves an
electronic component to detect capacitance changes.

Example: Capacitive touchscreens rely on capacitive sensing to detect finger touches.

2. Magnetic Sensors:

- Principle: Magnetic sensors detect the presence and strength of magnetic fields. They rely on various
physical phenomena, such as the Hall effect, magnetoresistance, or changes in magnetic permeability, to
convert magnetic field variations into electrical signals.

Types: Common types of magnetic sensors include:

 Hall effect sensors: These sensors measure the voltage difference caused by a magnetic field on a
current-carrying conductor.

 Magnetoresistive sensors: These sensors detect changes in resistance caused by a magnetic field.

Applications: Magnetic sensors are used in various applications, such as position sensing, speed sensing, and
magnetic field measurement.

Example: Reed switches are a simple type of magnetic sensor that use a magnetic field to close or open an electrical
circuit.

3. Inductive Sensors:

- Principle: Inductive sensors detect the presence of conductive objects by measuring changes in
inductance. Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit that opposes changes in current flow.

- Detection: Typically used to detect metallic objects, as the eddy currents induced in the object by the
sensor's magnetic field affect the inductance.

Applications: Inductive sensors are commonly used in proximity sensing, position sensing, and eddy current testing.

Types: Inductive proximity sensors can be further classified into different types based on their operating principle,
such as high-frequency oscillation, magnetic, or electrostatic capacity types, according to Keyence.

Example: Inductive sensors are used in automatic door systems to detect the presence of a person or object near the
door.

TOPIC II.

- Different types of sensors according to: capacitance, magnetism, inductions, piezoelectric and
temperature.

Different types of sensors categorized by their working principle – specifically under capacitance, magnetism,
piezoelectric, and temperature.

Capacitance-based Sensors

These work by detecting changes in capacitance due to variation in distance, dielectric constant, or overlapping area.

 Capacitive Proximity Sensor – detects the presence/absence of objects (metallic or non-metallic).

 Capacitive Level Sensor – measures the level of liquids or solids in a container.

 Capacitive Displacement Sensor – measures small changes in position, thickness, or vibration.

  Humidity Sensor (Capacitive type) – detects changes in capacitance caused by humidity levels.

2. Magnetism-based Sensors

These sense magnetic fields or changes caused by magnetic materials.

 Hall Effect Sensor – detects the strength or presence of a magnetic field (used in speedometers, current
sensing).

 Magnetoresistive Sensor – resistance changes with magnetic field (used in compasses, hard drives).

 Reed Switch Sensor – a magnetic field closes or opens a contact inside a glass tube.

 Fluxgate Magnetometer – measures direction and intensity of magnetic fields (used in geophysics,
navigation).

3. Piezoelectric Sensors

They generate electric charge when subjected to mechanical stress (pressure, force, or vibration).

 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor – measures pressure through deformation.

 Piezoelectric Vibration Sensor – monitors vibration levels in machines (condition monitoring).

 Piezoelectric Microphone – converts sound waves into electrical signals.

 Piezoelectric Force Sensor – detects force, acceleration, or shock.

4. Temperature Sensors

These detect temperature changes using resistance, voltage, or infrared radiation.

 Thermocouple – produces voltage based on temperature difference between junctions.

 RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) – resistance of platinum/nickel increases with temperature.

 Thermistor (NTC/PTC) – resistance decreases (NTC) or increases (PTC) with temperature.

 Infrared Temperature Sensor – detects IR radiation from objects without contact.

 Semiconductor Temperature Sensor (IC type) – gives analog/digital output proportional to temperature.

Type → Example Sensor → Working Principle → Applications

Category Example Sensor Working Principle Applications

Capacitance- Capacitive Proximity Detects change in capacitance when Object detection, touchscreens,
based Sensor object approaches sensing plate robotics
Capacitance changes with liquid/solid Tank level monitoring, industrial
Capacitive Level Sensor
level in a container silos
Capacitive Displacement Capacitance varies with distance, Precision position measurement,
Sensor thickness, or vibration vibration analysis
Capacitive Humidity Dielectric constant changes with Weather stations, HVAC systems,
Sensor humidity, altering capacitance smartphones
 Category Example Sensor Working Principle Applications
Magnetism- Voltage generated proportional to Speedometers, current sensors,
Hall Effect Sensor
based magnetic field brushless motors
Resistance changes in presence of Digital compasses, HDD read
Magnetoresistive Sensor
magnetic field heads
Magnetic field closes or opens reed Security systems (door sensors),
Reed Switch Sensor
contacts limit switches
Uses ferromagnetic core to measure Geophysics, navigation, defense
Fluxgate Magnetometer
field direction & strength systems
Piezoelectric Pressure Engine monitoring, industrial
Piezoelectric Mechanical stress generates voltage
Sensor pressure gauges
Piezoelectric Vibration Machine health monitoring,
Vibration causes charge output
Sensor seismic sensors
Piezoelectric
Sound waves produce electric signals Microphones, acoustic instruments
Microphone
Piezoelectric Force Force or acceleration generates electric Shock detection, robotics,
Sensor charge aerospace
Voltage difference at dissimilar metal Industrial furnaces, ovens,
Temperature Thermocouple
junctions thermometers
High-accuracy lab & industrial
RTD (Platinum/Nickel) Resistance increases with temperature
temperature measurement
Resistance decreases (NTC) or Electronic circuits, automotive
Thermistor (NTC/PTC)
increases (PTC) with temperature sensors
Infrared Temperature Measures emitted IR radiation from Non-contact thermometers,
Sensor objects thermal imaging
Output voltage/current proportional to Consumer electronics, CPUs, IoT
Semiconductor (IC type)
temperature devices

Quiz on Sensors (Capacitance, Magnetism, Piezoelectric, Temperature)

Part A – Multiple Choice (Choose the best answer)

1. Which sensor works by detecting changes in capacitance when an object approaches?

a) Hall Effect Sensor
b) Capacitive Proximity Sensor
c) Piezoelectric Vibration Sensor
d) Thermistor

2. A Hall Effect Sensor is mainly used to:

a) Detect humidity
b) Detect magnetic field strength
c) Measure pressure
d) Measure temperature

3. Which of the following is a piezoelectric application?

a) Thermocouple in furnaces
b) Reed switch in door alarms
c) Microphone converting sound into signals
d) Capacitive level detection in tanks

4. The Infrared Temperature Sensor is mainly used for:

a) Non-contact temperature measurement
b) Magnetic navigation
 c) Detecting vibration
d) Measuring humidity

5. A Thermistor changes its ______ with temperature.

a) Voltage
b) Resistance
c) Capacitance
d) Magnetic field

Part B – Identification

6. Sensor that uses a ferromagnetic core to measure field direction and intensity = ___________

7. Sensor that measures tiny displacement or thickness using capacitance = ___________

8. Device that uses NTC/PTC characteristics = ___________

9. Sensor that produces voltage when metals are joined and heated = ___________

10. Sensor that uses mechanical stress to generate charge = ___________

Part C – True or False

11. A capacitive humidity sensor works because the dielectric constant changes with humidity. (T/F)

12. RTDs are less accurate than thermistors. (T/F)

13. Piezoelectric sensors can be used for vibration monitoring. (T/F)

14. Reed switches operate without a magnetic field. (T/F)

15. Semiconductor temperature sensors are often built inside ICs. (T/F)

TOPIC III.

- Sensor technology ( materials, surface processing, nanotechnology, types of sensors)

Sensor Technology & Its Relation to Materials, Surface Processing, and Nanotechnology

What is Sensor Technology?

Sensor technology is the science and application of devices called sensors, which are used to detect, measure,
and respond to physical, chemical, or biological signals from the environment.

A sensor converts a real-world phenomenon (like temperature, pressure, motion, light, gas, or biomolecules)
into a measurable electrical signal that can be processed, displayed, or used to control systems.

🔑 Key Points:

1. Definition:
A sensor is a device that detects changes in physical/environmental conditions and converts them into
usable signals.
 2. Basic Function:

o Input → Physical quantity (temperature, pressure, light, sound, chemical concentration)

o Conversion → Transducer mechanism (electrical, optical, mechanical, etc.)

o Output → Electrical signal (voltage, current, digital data)

3. Examples of Sensor Technology:

o Temperature Sensors → Thermocouples, RTDs, Infrared sensors

o Motion Sensors → Accelerometers, Gyroscopes

o Pressure Sensors → Piezoelectric, Strain gauge

o Biosensors → Glucose sensors, DNA sensors

o Environmental Sensors → Gas sensors, Humidity sensors

4. Applications:

o Consumer electronics (smartphones, wearables, IoT)

o Automotive (airbags, tire pressure, parking assist)

o Industrial automation (robotics, process control)

o Healthcare (biomedical sensors, diagnostic devices)

o Defense & Aerospace (navigation, surveillance)

✅ In short:
Sensor technology is about detecting real-world changes and converting them into information that machines
and humans can use for monitoring, control, and decision-making.

1. Materials in Sensor Technology

The choice of material directly affects sensitivity, accuracy, durability, and application.

 Metals (Platinum, Nickel, Copper) → used in RTDs, thermocouples, strain gauges.

 Semiconductors (Silicon, GaAs, ZnO) → used in IC temperature sensors, Hall sensors, MEMS.

 Piezoelectric Materials (Quartz, PZT ceramics, ZnO) → used in vibration, pressure, and acoustic
sensors.

 Polymers (Conductive polymers, hydrogels) → used in flexible sensors, biosensors.

 Magnetic Materials (Ferrites, Permalloy) → used in magnetoresistive and fluxgate sensors.

2. Surface Processing in Sensors

Surface modification improves performance, selectivity, and durability of sensors.

  Thin-film deposition (PVD, CVD, sputtering) → used to create sensitive layers in gas sensors, MEMS.

 Etching / Lithography → for micro-structuring sensor surfaces in MEMS & nanodevices.

 Surface functionalization (chemical coatings, plasma treatment) → improves biocompatibility and

selectivity in biosensors.

 Coatings (anti-corrosion, catalytic, passivation layers) → extend sensor lifetime in harsh environments.

3. Nanotechnology in Sensors

Nanomaterials provide ultra-high sensitivity, miniaturization, and faster response.

 Nanoparticles (Au, Ag, Pt, Pd) → enhance sensitivity in gas & biosensors.

 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) → used in strain, chemical, and glucose sensors due to high conductivity.

 Graphene → ultra-sensitive platform for flexible, wearable, and transparent sensors.

 Nanowires & Nanorods (ZnO, Si) → used in UV detectors, pressure, and chemical sensors.

 Quantum Dots → applied in optical and biomedical sensors for fluorescence detection.

4. Integration Example

 Gas Sensor:

o Material → SnO₂ or ZnO semiconductor

o Surface Processing → catalytic nanoparticle coating (Pt, Pd)

o Nanotechnology → nanowire/nanoparticle structure increases surface area → higher sensitivity

 Biosensor:

o Material → Gold electrode

o Surface Processing → functionalized with antibodies/enzymes

o Nanotechnology → graphene or CNT layer boosts electron transfer → ultra-low detection limits

✅ In short:

 Materials = foundation of sensing properties.

 Surface Processing = tailoring and enhancing performance.

 Nanotechnology = ultimate sensitivity, selectivity, and miniaturization.

Quiz: Sensors, Materials, Surface Processing & Nanotechnology

Part A – Multiple Choice (Choose the best answer)

1. Which material is commonly used in RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors)?

a) Gold
 b) Platinum
c) Silicon
d) Aluminum

2. Piezoelectric sensors are usually made from:

a) Copper & Nickel alloys
b) Quartz or PZT ceramics
c) Graphene
d) Ferrites

3. The main purpose of surface functionalization in sensors is to:

a) Improve selectivity and biocompatibility
b) Reduce electrical conductivity
c) Eliminate the need for power supply
d) Prevent miniaturization

4. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are widely used in sensors because they:

a) Are magnetic
b) Have high conductivity and surface area
c) Are cheaper than metals
d) Cannot be integrated into ICs

5. A fluxgate magnetometer mainly uses:

a) Ferrite cores
b) Graphene sheets
c) Thin polymer layers
d) Nanoparticles

Part B – Identification

6. Material commonly used in thermocouples = ___________

7. Nanomaterial with one-atom-thick sheet structure used in flexible sensors = ___________

8. Surface process that deposits thin films by chemical reaction = ___________

9. Nanotechnology tool that uses semiconductor nanocrystals for fluorescence sensing = ___________

10. Sensor technology where enzyme-coated electrodes detect glucose = ___________

Part C – True or False

11. Graphene is widely used in sensors because of its high conductivity and flexibility. (T/F)

12. Thin-film deposition methods like CVD and PVD are part of surface processing in sensors. (T/F)

13. Nanoparticles (Au, Pt, Pd) are used to decrease sensitivity of chemical sensors. (T/F)

14. Polymers are never used in biosensors. (T/F)

15. Surface processing can improve corrosion resistance and lifetime of sensors. (T/F)

TOPIC 1V.
 - Proximity sensors (magnetic proximity sensor, capacitive proximity sensor, ultrasonic proximity sensor,
and pneumatic proximity sensor.)

What is proximity sensor?

A proximity sensor is a type of sensor that detects the presence or absence of an object, or the object’s distance from
the sensor, without any physical contact.

It works by emitting a field (magnetic, electric, sound, or air pressure) and measuring how that field is disturbed by an
approaching object.

🔑 Key Points:

 Non-contact detection → no wear and tear, longer life.

 Types:
o Magnetic proximity sensor → detects magnets/ferromagnetic materials.
o Capacitive proximity sensor → detects metallic & non-metallic objects (like plastic, glass, liquid).
o Ultrasonic proximity sensor → uses sound waves to detect distance/objects.
o Pneumatic proximity sensor → uses air pressure changes for detection.
 Applications:
o Industrial automation (robot arms, conveyors)
o Smartphones (screen turns off during calls)
o Automotive (parking assistance, collision detection)
o Security systems

Proximity Sensors

Definition:
A proximity sensor detects the presence (or absence) of an object without physical contact. It works by sensing
changes in magnetic, electrical, or acoustic fields, or air pressure.

1. Magnetic Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle: Uses a magnetic field to detect ferromagnetic objects (iron, steel). Often based on a reed
switch or Hall effect sensor.

 Applications:

o Security systems (door/window detection)

o Position sensing in machines

o Automotive ignition/ABS systems

2. Capacitive Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle: Detects objects by measuring changes in capacitance when an object enters the electric
field of the sensor. Works with metallic and non-metallic materials (wood, plastic, liquid).

 Applications:

o Level detection of liquids/solids in tanks

 o Touchscreens and touch buttons

o Packaging industry (bottles, powders, granules)

3. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle: Emits ultrasonic waves and measures the time of flight of the reflected wave (echo)
from the target object. Works well for transparent and non-metallic objects.

 Applications:

o Parking sensors in cars

o Robotics (distance measurement, obstacle detection)

o Industrial automation (object counting, positioning)

o Liquid level measurement

4. Pneumatic Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle: Works by sensing changes in air pressure or airflow when an object approaches the
sensor nozzle. Non-contact but requires compressed air.

 Applications:

o Textile industry (thread break detection)

o Position sensing in harsh environments

o Measuring thin/fragile materials (paper, film)

🔑 Quick Comparison

Type Working Principle Detects Common Applications

Magnetic Detects magnetic field change Ferromagnetic objects Security, automotive

Capacitive Measures capacitance change Metal & non-metal, liquids Level sensors, touchscreens

Ultrasonic Uses sound wave reflection Any object (solid/liquid) Parking sensors, robotics

Pneumatic Senses air pressure change Any object blocking airflow Textile, fragile material handling

✅ In short:

 Magnetic → metal detection.

 Capacitive → metal + non-metal (including liquids).

 Ultrasonic → distance via sound waves.

 Pneumatic → airflow/pressure changes.

Quiz: Proximity Sensors (Magnetic, Capacitive, Ultrasonic, Pneumatic)

Part A – Multiple Choice (Choose the best answer)

1. Which proximity sensor works only with ferromagnetic objects?

a) Capacitive
b) Ultrasonic
c) Magnetic
d) Pneumatic

2. A capacitive proximity sensor can detect:

a) Only steel and iron objects
b) Both metallic and non-metallic objects
c) Only transparent objects
d) Only air pressure changes

3. Which proximity sensor uses sound waves to detect objects?

a) Magnetic
b) Ultrasonic
c) Pneumatic
d) Capacitive

4. A pneumatic proximity sensor operates based on changes in:

a) Magnetic field
b) Electric capacitance
c) Ultrasonic reflection
d) Air pressure/airflow

5. Which sensor type is commonly used in car parking assistance systems?

a) Capacitive
b) Pneumatic
c) Ultrasonic
d) Magnetic

Part B – Identification

6. Sensor that uses a reed switch or Hall effect to detect magnets = ___________

7. Sensor that detects liquid levels in tanks using capacitance change = ___________

8. Sensor that requires compressed air to function = ___________

9. Sensor that can detect transparent objects like glass = ___________

10. Sensor used in ATM touch panels and smartphones = ___________

Part C – True or False

11. Capacitive sensors can only detect metals. (T/F)

12. Magnetic sensors are widely used in security systems. (T/F)

 13. Ultrasonic sensors cannot detect non-metallic objects. (T/F)

14. Pneumatic proximity sensors are suitable for fragile materials like paper or film. (T/F)

15. Ultrasonic sensors measure distance using the time of flight of sound waves. (T/F)

TOPIC V.

- Thermal sensors, LVDT, level sensor, load cells, motion sensors, accelerometer, pressure sensor,
magnetic flow meter.)

What is thermal sensor?

A thermal sensor (or temperature sensor) is a device that detects, measures, and responds to temperature
changes by converting heat energy into an electrical, mechanical, or digital signal.

🔎 Key Points about Thermal Sensors:

 They sense temperature variation in the environment, object, or system.

 Output can be:

o Resistance change (thermistor, RTD)

o Mechanical bending (bimetallic strip)

o Voltage/current change (solid-state IC, thermocouple)

 Used for monitoring, control, and safety in many applications.

🧩 Examples:

1. Thermistor → resistance changes with temperature (NTC/PTC).

2. Bimetallic Strip → bends due to different expansion rates of metals.

3. Solid-State Sensor (IC type) → semiconductor-based, outputs voltage/digital signal.

4. Thermocouple → produces voltage from junction of dissimilar metals.

5. Infrared Temperature Sensor → measures heat radiation without contact.

⚙️Applications:

 Electronics (CPU cooling, smartphones)

 Automotive (engine temp sensors)

 Home appliances (AC, refrigerators, ovens)

 Industrial systems (furnaces, boilers)

 Medical (digital thermometers, body temperature monitoring)

👉 In simple words:
A thermal sensor is any device that measures heat or temperature and converts it into a readable signal for
monitoring or control.

Thermal Sensors

1. Thermistor

 Working principle:
A thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor. Its resistance changes significantly with temperature.

o NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) → resistance decreases as temperature increases.

o PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) → resistance increases as temperature increases.

 Applications:

o Electronic circuits (temperature compensation)

o Automotive (engine sensors)

o Home appliances (aircon, fridge)

2. Bimetallic Strip Sensor

 Working principle:
A bimetallic strip consists of two different metals bonded together. Since metals expand differently with
heat, the strip bends when temperature changes.

 Applications:

o Mechanical thermostats (old refrigerators, ovens, irons)

o Circuit breakers

o Heat alarms

3. Solid-State Temperature Sensor

 Working principle:
These are semiconductor-based sensors (IC type). Temperature changes affect the voltage, current, or
frequency output of the device.

o Examples: LM35, TMP36, DS18B20

 Applications:

o Consumer electronics (CPUs, phones, IoT devices)

o Industrial process monitoring

o Medical thermometers

📌 Summary Table
Category Example Working Principle Applications

Thermistor NTC/PTC types Resistance changes with temperature Electronics, automotive, appliances

Mechanical Different expansion rates cause strip Thermostats, ovens, circuit

Bimetallic Strip
thermostat bending breakers

Solid-State Semiconductor output changes with Electronics, CPUs, IoT, medical

IC (LM35, TMP36)
Sensor temperature devices

Quiz: Thermal Sensors

Part A – Multiple Choice

(Choose the best answer)

1. Which thermal sensor works by resistance change with temperature?

a) Bimetallic strip
b) Thermistor
c) Solid-state sensor
d) Thermocouple

2. In an NTC thermistor, resistance:

a) Increases as temperature increases
b) Decreases as temperature increases
c) Stays constant with temperature
d) First increases then decreases

3. A bimetallic strip sensor bends because:

a) One metal conducts electricity better
b) Metals expand at different rates with heat
c) It generates voltage at high temperature
d) It changes resistance with temperature

4. Which sensor is commonly used in CPUs and smartphones?

a) Thermistor
b) Bimetallic strip
c) Solid-state temperature sensor (IC type)
d) Mercury thermometer

5. The LM35 is an example of:

a) Thermistor
b) Bimetallic sensor
c) Solid-state temperature sensor
d) Infrared sensor

Part B – Identification

1. Temperature sensor used in mechanical thermostats = ___________

2. Temperature-sensitive resistor (NTC/PTC type) = ___________

3. Sensor that uses semiconductors like LM35 and TMP36 = ___________

4. Sensor applied in car engines and air conditioners = ___________

 5. Sensor that works by metal expansion difference = ___________

Part C – True or False

1. A thermistor can have either NTC or PTC characteristics. (T/F)

2. Bimetallic strips generate voltage when heated. (T/F)

3. Solid-state temperature sensors are more suitable for digital systems. (T/F)

4. Thermistors are less accurate than solid-state IC sensors. (T/F)

5. Bimetallic strips are used in modern smartphones. (T/F)

TOPIC VI.

Mechanical sensor (displacement, location, or position sensor, resistive capacitive and inductive sensors, variable
reluctance sensors, LVDT, Level sensors, magnetic flow meter)

Mechanical Sensors

1. Displacement / Location / Position Sensors

These sensors measure movement, distance, or position of an object.

a) Resistive Sensor (Potentiometer type)

 Working principle: Movement changes the resistance of a sliding contact over a resistive element.

 Applications: Joysticks, machine control, automotive throttle sensors.

b) Capacitive Sensor

 Working principle: Displacement changes the capacitance between plates.

 Applications: Precision displacement measurement, vibration analysis, touch sensors.

c) Inductive Sensor

 Working principle: Movement of a metallic object changes the inductance of a coil.

 Applications: Proximity detection, CNC machines, automotive speed sensors.

d) Variable Reluctance Sensor

 Working principle: Movement of a ferromagnetic object changes the reluctance (magnetic resistance) of a
magnetic circuit.

 Applications: Crankshaft/camshaft sensors in cars, speed detection.

e) LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

 Working principle: A movable iron core inside transformer windings changes the induced voltage,
proportional to displacement.

 Applications: Precise displacement/position sensing in aerospace, robotics, and industrial systems.

2. Level Sensors
Used to measure liquid or solid levels in tanks, silos, or containers.

 Types:

o Float type → mechanical float rises/falls with liquid level.

o Capacitive level sensor → capacitance changes with liquid/solid level.

o Ultrasonic level sensor → measures time of flight of ultrasonic waves.

 Applications: Water tanks, oil storage, industrial process control.

3. Magnetic Flow Meter

 Working principle: Based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction → when a conductive liquid
flows through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced proportional to the flow rate.

 Applications: Water treatment plants, chemical industries, food & beverage industries.

📌 Summary Table

Category Example Sensor Working Principle Applications

Displacement Resistive (Potentiometer) Movement changes resistance Joysticks, automotive throttle

Capacitive Capacitance varies with distance Vibration analysis, touch sensors

Inductive Metal movement changes coil inductance CNC, automation, proximity

Variable Reluctance Motion changes magnetic reluctance Car speed & crank sensors

Robotics, aerospace, precision

LVDT Movable core changes induced voltage
control

Float, Capacitive, Float, capacitance, or ultrasound reflection Tanks, silos, industrial

Level
Ultrasonic changes monitoring

Conductive fluid in magnetic field induces

Flow Magnetic Flow Meter Water, chemical, food industries
voltage

Quiz: Mechanical Sensors

Part A – Multiple Choice

(Choose the best answer)

1. Which sensor measures displacement by varying resistance of a sliding contact?

a) Inductive sensor
b) Resistive potentiometer sensor
c) LVDT
d) Variable reluctance sensor

2. An inductive sensor is most suitable for detecting:

a) Wooden objects
b) Transparent glass
 c) Metallic objects
d) Water level

3. Which displacement sensor uses a movable iron core inside coils?

a) Capacitive sensor
b) LVDT
c) Potentiometer
d) Variable reluctance sensor

4. A float-type level sensor works on the principle of:

a) Magnetic field change
b) Buoyancy
c) Resistance heating
d) Ultrasonic reflection

5. The Magnetic Flow Meter is based on:

a) Hall Effect
b) Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
c) Capacitance change
d) Resistance variation

Part B – Identification

1. Displacement sensor used in joysticks and automotive throttle = ___________

2. Sensor that measures tiny vibration or distance using capacitance = ___________

3. Sensor used in car crankshaft/camshaft detection = ___________

4. Level sensor that works without direct contact, using sound waves = ___________

5. Flow sensor used in water treatment and chemical plants = ___________

Part C – True or False

1. LVDT is used for precision displacement measurement. (T/F)

2. Capacitive sensors can only detect metallic objects. (T/F)

3. Variable reluctance sensors are commonly used in automotive engines. (T/F)

4. Magnetic flow meters can measure the flow of non-conductive liquids like oil. (T/F)

5. Float-type level sensors rely on buoyancy to track liquid levels. (T/F)

TOPIC VII.

- Optical sensors ( optical proximity sensors, optical proximity sensor with fiber optic cable.)

Optical Sensors

Optical sensors work by using light (infrared, visible, or laser) to detect the presence, distance, or position of an
object. They rely on the interruption, reflection, or transmission of light between a transmitter and a receiver.
1. Optical Proximity Sensor

 Working Principle:
Uses infrared or visible light emitted by a source (LED/laser). When an object is near, the reflected light is
detected by a photodiode/phototransistor, indicating the presence of the object.

 Applications:

o Automatic doors

o Object detection in robotics

o Conveyor belt item counting

o Safety/light curtains in machines

2. Optical Proximity Sensor with Fiber Optic Cable

 Working Principle:
Light travels through a fiber optic cable to reach hard-to-access locations. When the light beam is interrupted
or reflected by an object, the returning light is detected by the receiver.

 Advantages:

o Can detect objects in harsh environments (high temperature, dust, vibration).

o Flexible installation (fiber cables can bend into small spaces).

 Applications:

o Industrial automation in tight spaces

o Hazardous or high-temperature environments

o Semiconductor and electronics manufacturing

o Medical instruments (endoscopy, surgical equipment)

📌 Summary Table

Category Example Working Principle Applications

Detects reflected or interrupted

Optical Proximity Sensor Infrared/laser-based Robotics, doors, conveyor belts
light

Optical Proximity Sensor Fiber optic + optical Light transmitted via fiber; object Harsh environments, medical,
with Fiber Optic Cable detector changes reflection or interruption electronics, tight spaces

Quiz: Optical Sensors

Part A – Multiple Choice

(Choose the best answer)

1. Optical sensors work primarily by detecting changes in:

a) Heat radiation
b) Light reflection, interruption, or transmission
c) Magnetic field strength
d) Electrical resistance

2. An optical proximity sensor typically uses:

a) Infrared or visible light with a photodiode detector
b) Magnetic coils and inductance
c) Mechanical floats
d) Air pressure changes

3. Where are optical proximity sensors commonly applied?

a) Crankshaft detection
b) Automatic doors and safety light curtains
c) Engine oil monitoring
d) CPU temperature sensing

4. The main advantage of using fiber optic optical sensors is:

a) They only detect metals
b) They can operate in harsh environments and tight spaces
c) They do not need light to function
d) They replace mechanical floats

5. In medical applications, fiber-optic optical sensors are used in:

a) Pacemakers
b) Endoscopy and surgical instruments
c) Thermostats
d) Car braking systems

Part B – Identification

1. Sensor that detects objects by reflected infrared/laser light = ___________

2. Sensor suitable for dusty, high-temperature environments = ___________

3. Sensor applied in conveyor belt counting = ___________

4. Sensor installed in tight industrial spaces with light delivered by cable = ___________

5. Sensor technology used in safety curtains for machines = ___________

Part C – True or False

1. Optical sensors rely on magnetic fields to detect objects. (T/F)

2. Optical proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects. (T/F)

3. Fiber optic optical sensors are more flexible for installation than standard optical sensors. (T/F)

4. Optical proximity sensors are not suitable for medical applications. (T/F)
5. Safety light curtains use optical sensors to prevent accidents. (T/F)