Sensors: Sensors are devices that detect physical quantities (for example temperature,

pressure, displacement, etc. and convert them into electrical signals for measurement or
processing. Sensor is an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being
measured. An input device which provides an output (signal) with respect to a specific physical
quantity. A device that converts signals from one energy domain to electrical domain.

Actuators: Actuators are devices that take the electrical signals from sensors or control
systems and convert them into physical actions. They often control mechanisms such as valves,
motors, or other devices to manipulate the physical state of a system.

Types of Sensors

1. Temperature Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Measure temperature by sensing changes in resistance,
voltage, or mechanical deformation.
○ Types: Thermocouples, RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors), Thermistors,
Infrared Sensors.

Thermostat as a Temperature sensor:- The Thermostat is a contact type electro-

mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists of two different
metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded together
to form a Bi-metallic strip. The different linear expansion rates of the two
dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement when the strip is
subjected to heat.
 The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to
back. When it is cold the contacts are closed and current passes through the
thermostat. When it gets hot, one metal expands more than the other and the
bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the contacts preventing the
current from flowing.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Accuracy, range (e.g., -50°C to 150°C), sensitivity. ○

Applications: HVAC systems, industrial processes, medical devices.
2. Pressure Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Measure pressure by detecting the force exerted by a fluid
(liquid or gas) on a sensor.

The strain gauge is a passive transducer used to pressure, which converts the change in
pressure into a change in resistance as the metal strain gauge deforms because of the
pressure applied.
The principle of the strain gauge is the Piezoresistive effect, which means
“pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a resistance that changes value with applied pressure.
The strain gauge is a classic example of a piezoresistive element.

○ Types: Piezoresistive, Capacitive, Electromagnetic, Optical.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Pressure range (e.g., 0-100 psi), accuracy, sensitivity.
○ Applications: Industrial controls, automotive systems, medical devices.
3. Water Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Detect the presence or level of water using conductivity,
resistance, or capacitive measurements.
 Ultrasonic Water level sensor:-

The ultrasonic sensor module is an ideal choice for non-contact liquid level measurement. It
consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and control circuitry. The sensor measures the time
duration of signal propagation from the transmitter to the object and back to the receiver
to determine the distance between the sensor and the reflecting object.

○ Types: Float sensors, Conductivity sensors, Capacitive sensors.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Sensitivity, range, material compatibility.
○ Applications: Water level monitoring, leak detection, irrigation systems.
4. Light Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Detect light intensity or changes in light levels

Photodiode as Light Detector

Photodiodes:Are semiconductor junction, connected into a circuit in reverse bias giving

a very high resistance. With no incident light, the reverse current is almost negligible and
is termed the dark current. When light falls on the junction, extra hole–electron pairs are
produced and there is an increase in the reverse current and the diode resistance drops.
The reverse current is very nearly proportional to the intensity of the light.
 ○ Types: Photodiodes, Phototransistors, LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors). ○
Ratings/Specifications: Wavelength range, sensitivity, response time.
○ Applications: Ambient light sensing, display brightness control, security systems.
5. Sound Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Detect sound waves and convert them into electrical signals.

Microphone as Sound Sensor:-

A condenser microphone consists of two charged metal plates. The first plate is called the
diaphragm and the second plate is the backplate of the microphone. These two plates
together form a capacitor. When a sound wave hits the diaphragm of the microphone the
diaphragm starts to vibrate, and the distance between the two plates changes. The
movement of the diaphragm and the change in spacing produces the electrical signal that
corresponds to the sound that's picked up by the microphone and this signal then gets
processed by the onboard op-amp.

○ Types: Microphones, Ultrasonic sensors.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Frequency range, sensitivity, signal-to-noise ratio.
 ○Applications: Audio recording, voice recognition systems, ultrasonic distance
measurement.
6. Smoke Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Detect smoke particles using ionization or photoelectric
methods.

The diagram shows inner design of Photoelectric Smoke Detector of Light obscuration type. As shown,
it consists of source and detector LEDs and sensing chamber or space. In the normal state, light
transmitted by source LED is received and detected by detector LED. In the smoky fire state condition,
light is either blocked by the smoke particles or its intensity is reduced to greater extent. This is
detected and monitored by the circuit and when particular threshold is crossed, an alarm is generated.

○ Types: Ionization detectors, Photoelectric detectors.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Sensitivity, detection range.
○ Applications: Fire alarms, safety systems.
7. Proximity Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Detect the presence or absence of objects near the sensor
without physical contact.

Ultrasonic Sensor as proximity Sensor:-

Ultrasonic sensors measure the distance or presence of target objects by sending a

pulsed ultrasound wave at the object and then measuring the time for the sound echo to
return. Knowing the speed of sound, the sensor can determine the distance of the object.
 ○ Types: Inductive, Capacitive, Ultrasonic, Optical.
○ Ratings/Specifications: Sensing range, response time, environmental
resistance.
○ Applications: Industrial automation, mobile devices, security systems.
8. Flow Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Measure the flow rate of liquids or gases.

Electromagnetic flow meter:-

Principle:- The electromagnetic flowmeter works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of

electromagnetic induction. This law states that when the conductive liquid passes through
the magnetic field, the voltage induces across the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage
is directly proportional to the velocity, length of the conductor and the strength of the
magnetic field.
The electromagnet is placed around the insulated pipe. This electromagnet induces the magnetic
field around the pipe. The arrangement is similar to the conductor moving in the magnetic field.
The voltage is induced across the coil because of the flow of the liquid. The

induces voltage is expressed as,

Where, v – velocity of conductor (flow); m/s
l – length of conductor = diameter of pipe ;m
B = flux X density ; wb/m2

○ Types: Turbine, Thermal, Electromagnetic, Ultrasonic.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Flow range, accuracy, pressure drop.
○ Applications: Process control, HVAC systems, medical devices.
9. Humidity Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Measure the moisture content in the air.
○ Types: Capacitive, Resistive, Thermal.
○ Ratings/Specifications: Humidity range, accuracy, response time.
○ Applications: HVAC systems, weather stations, agricultural monitoring.
10. VoltageSensors:-

Principle/Working: Measure electrical potential difference between In voltage sensors, the

measurement is based on a voltage divider.

Two main types of voltage sensors are available: capacitive type voltage sensor and
resistive type voltage sensor.

○ Types: Analog, Digital, Differential.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Voltage range, accuracy,
○ Applications: Electrical power systems, battery monitoring, industrial controls.
11. Vibration Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Detect mechanical vibration or acceleration.
○ Types: Piezoelectric, MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems), Capacitive.

Accelerometer as a vibration sensor:- The principle of the accelerometer sensor

is Newton's second law, the law of acceleration, which is the balance of force, A
(acceleration) = F (inertial force) / M (mass). We only need to measure F.

Most accelerometer sensors work according to the principle of the piezoelectric

effect.the external force applied to the crystal will not only deform the crystal but
also change the polarization state of the crystal and establish an electric field inside
the crystal. This is due to mechanical force. The phenomenon of polarizing the
medium is called the positive piezoelectric effect.

○ Ratings/Specifications: Frequency range, sensitivity, amplitude range.

○ Applications: Machine health monitoring, seismic activity detection, automotive
applications.
12. Infrared (IR) Sensors
○ Principle/Working: Detect IR radiation emitted by objects.

Principle/Working:- An IR sensor consists of two parts, the emitter circuit, and the
receiver circuit. This is collectively known as a photo-coupler or an optocoupler.The emitter
is an IR LED and the detector is an IR photodiode. The IR photodiode is sensitive to the
IR light emitted by an IR LED. The photodiode’s resistance and output voltage change in
proportion to the IR light received.
Both the diodes are placed side by side with an opaque object in front of the sensor. The
light from the IR LED hits the opaque surface and reflects back to the photodiode.

○ Types: Active (emitter and detector), Passive (PIR).

○ Ratings/Specifications: Wavelength range, sensitivity, detection distance. ○
Applications: Remote controls, motion detectors, thermal imaging.