SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

UNIT 1

Sensors: Functions and

Classifications
What Is a Sensor?
At its core, a sensor is a device that detects and responds to physical stimuli from its environment.
Unlike a simple switch, a sensor doesn't just detect "on" or "off"; it quantifies the stimulus,
converting it into a measurable electrical signal.

1 2 3

Detects Stimuli Converts to Signal Enables

Measures various physical Translates the detected physical Intelligence
Allows systems to monitor
parameters like temperature, quantity into an electrical signal conditions, control processes, and
pressure, light, sound, motion, (voltage, current, resistance, or make autonomous decisions,
humidity, or chemical presence. digital data) that can be processed by forming the foundation of automated
other devices. technology.
Core Functions of
Sensors
Sensors play critical roles in a vast array of applications, performing essential functions that drive efficiency, safety,
and innovation. Enabling everything from smart homes to complex industrial automation.

Monitoring Feedback Control Intelligent

Sensors continuously collect data on By providing input to control systems, Processing
In modern systems like IoT devices and
environmental conditions or system sensors enable automatic adjustments autonomous vehicles, sensors provide
parameters, feeding information to to maintain desired conditions. For raw data that advanced algorithms
displays, data logs, or alert systems. example, a thermostat uses a process to make complex, rule-based
This provides real-time insights into temperature sensor to turn a heater on decisions without human intervention.
various processes. or off.
Characteristics of Sensors
• High sensitivity

• Fast response time

• Accuracy and precision

• Reliability and stability over time

• Low hysteresis

• Minimal environmental interference

• Cost-effectiveness
Classification Overview
• Sensors can be classified based on:

• Nature of Measured Quantity (e.g., temperature, pressure, position)

• Conversion Principle (e.g., resistive, capacitive, inductive)

• Power Requirement (active vs passive)

• Contact Type (contact vs non-contact)

• Output Signal (analog vs digital)

• Material & Technology Used (MEMS, optical, piezoelectric, etc.)

Classification by Measured Quantity
• Temperature Sensors – Thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors

• Pressure Sensors – Piezoresistive, capacitive pressure sensors

• Displacement/Position Sensors – Potentiometers, LVDTs, optical encoders

• Flow Sensors – Turbine flow meters, ultrasonic flow meters

• Level Sensors – Ultrasonic, capacitive, float-type

• Light Sensors – Photodiodes, phototransistors, LDRs

• Gas Sensors – MQ-series, infrared gas detectors

Sensor Classification by Power
Requirement
Sensors can be fundamentally categorized by how they obtain the energy required to generate an output signal. This
distinction is crucial for system design and power management.

Active Passive
Sensors Sensors

These sensors require an external power supply to operate. These sensors generate their own electrical signal directly
They modulate the external power based on the measured from the physical stimulus without requiring any external
physical quantity. power.

• Examples: Thermistors (resistance changes with temp), • Examples: Thermocouples (generate voltage from temp

Strain Gauges (resistance changes with deformation), difference), Photodiodes (generate current from light),

Capacitive Sensors. Piezoelectric Sensors (generate voltage from

• Characteristic: Higher power consumption, but often offer
• Characteristic: Low or no power consumption, ideal for
pressure/force).
greater sensitivity and precision.
remote or energy-efficient applications.
Sensor Classification by Output
Signal
The type of electrical signal a sensor produces dictates how it interacts with other electronic components and processing units.
Understanding this distinction is fundamental for system integration.

Analog Sensors
These sensors output a continuous signal (typically voltage or current) that is
directly proportional to the measured physical parameter. The signal can take on any
value within a given range.
• Example: An LM35 temperature sensor outputs a voltage that changes smoothly
with temperature, e.g., 10mV per degree Celsius.
• Use Case: Requires an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) to be processed by
digital systems like microcontrollers.

Digital Sensors
These sensors output discrete digital data, usually in binary format, directly. They
often include an integrated ADC and communicate via standard digital protocols.
• Example: An ADXL345 accelerometer outputs acceleration data as binary
numbers through an I2C or SPI interface.
• Use Case: Can be directly interfaced with microcontrollers, simplifying system
design and reducing noise.
Classification by Physical Parameter
Measured
Sensors are most commonly classified by what they actually measure. This categorization helps in selecting the right sensor for a specific application
need.

Temperature Pressure Sensors

Sensors
Detect heat or cold. Types include Thermocouples, Resistance Measure the force exerted by liquids or gases. Used in automotive
Temperature Detectors (RTDs), and Thermistors. Essential for systems (tire pressure), medical devices (blood pressure), and
climate control, industrial processes, and medical diagnostics. weather monitoring (barometric pressure).

Proximity Sensors Motion & Position

Detect the presence or absence of an object without physical Sensors
Track movement, orientation, and displacement. This category
contact. Common types are inductive (for metals), capacitive (for includes accelerometers (linear motion), gyroscopes (angular
any material), and photoelectric (using light). velocity), and encoders (rotational position).
Key Sensor Types and
Applications
Each sensor type has specific properties that make it ideal for certain tasks, enabling precise
control and monitoring in diverse fields.

Temperature
1 Sensors
Applications: HVAC systems for climate control, industrial furnaces, medical
thermometers, food storage.

Pressure Sensors
2 Applications: Automotive tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS), medical blood
pressure cuffs, process control in chemical plants.

Proximity Sensors
3 Applications: Smartphones (turning off screen during calls), automatic doors,
assembly line object detection, robotics for collision avoidance.

Flow Sensors
4 Applications: Monitoring liquid and gas flow in water treatment plants, fuel
consumption in vehicles, and HVAC systems for airflow management.
Advanced Sensor
Features
Modern sensor technology goes beyond basic measurement, incorporating features that enable more sophisticated and robust applications in complex
environments.

Miniaturization Wireless
Sensors are becoming incredibly small, allowing for integration Connectivity
Integrated wireless modules (e.g., Bluetooth LE, LoRaWAN,
into compact devices like wearables, medical implants, and Wi-Fi) enable remote data transmission, reducing wiring
micro-drones, opening up new possibilities for ubiquitous complexity and facilitating monitoring in hard-to-reach or
sensing. distributed locations.

Multi-Sensor Harsh Environment

Modules
These integrate several different sensor types (e.g., temperature, Ready
Many modern sensors are designed to withstand extreme
humidity, pressure, accelerometer) into a single package, conditions, including high temperatures, vibrations, dust, water
providing a comprehensive environmental or motion profile with ingress (IP ratings), and electromagnetic interference
less space and power. (EMI/RFI), making them ideal for industrial and outdoor use.
 Smart Sensors
Sensors with built-in signal processing and communication
capabilities
Features Examples
Self-calibration, self-diagnostics, IoT-enabled temperature sensors,
wireless communication. smart cameras.
 Applications of Sensors
• Industrial Automation – Robotics, process control
• Medical – Heart rate, blood glucose monitors
• Consumer Electronics – Smartphones, smartwatches
• Automotive – Airbag sensors, parking sensors
• Environmental Monitoring – Weather stations, pollution
detectors
Future Trends in Sensor Technology

• Miniaturization (MEMS, NEMS)

• Energy harvesting sensors

• AI-integrated sensing systems

• Wearable and implantable sensors

• 5G/IoT-connected sensors