Unit 2 sensor

08 December 2024 20:09

A sensor is a device that detects and measures physical properties from the environment (like
temperature, motion, light, or pressure) and converts that information into a signal that can be read
or processed. Sensors play a crucial role in various applications, especially in IoT and automation
systems.

A sensor is a tool that detects changes in its environment and converts that information into data or
signals. For example, a temperature sensor can detect how hot or cold something is and send that
information to a system that can display or act upon it.

Characteristics of a Sensor
Sensors measure physical quantities (like temperature, pressure, or motion) and provide outputs.
Here are the key characteristics that describe how well a sensor performs:

1. Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how close the sensor's reading is to the true or actual value.
• Example: If a temperature sensor shows 30°C, and the true temperature is 29.5°C, the sensor
is accurate but has a small error.
• Errors:
○ Absolute Error = Measured value – True value
○ Relative Error = Measured value / True value

2. Range
The range tells you the highest and lowest values that the sensor can measure. Outside of this range,
the sensor cannot give valid readings.
• Example: A temperature sensor might measure temperatures from -200°C to 800°C. If the
temperature goes beyond this, the sensor can't give a correct reading.

3. Resolution
Resolution is the smallest change in the physical quantity (like temperature or light) that the sensor
can detect. A sensor with higher resolution can detect even the smallest changes.
• Example: A sensor that can detect 0.1°C changes has a higher resolution than one that can
only detect 1°C changes.

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 only detect 1°C changes.

4. Precision
Precision refers to how consistently the sensor can give the same reading when measuring the same
thing multiple times.
• Example: If you measure the same temperature 10 times and always get 25°C, the sensor is
precise. It doesn’t mean it’s accurate, just that the results are consistent.

5. Sensitivity
Sensitivity is how much the sensor’s output changes in response to a small change in input. The
higher the sensitivity, the smaller the change in input required to produce a noticeable change in
output.
• Example: A very sensitive temperature sensor will show a noticeable change in reading with a
tiny change in temperature.

6. Linearity
Linearity refers to how closely the sensor’s output follows a straight line when compared to the
input. A linear sensor produces a proportional change in output for every change in input.
• Example: If you double the temperature, a linear sensor will double its output. Non-linear
sensors don’t follow this pattern.

Sensor Classification
Sensors can be classified in various ways based on how they work or the type of data they measure.
Here are some common classifications:

1. Passive & Active Sensors

• Passive Sensors: These sensors do not generate their own power to detect signals. Instead,
they detect physical quantities and respond by measuring the energy that is reflected or
emitted from the environment. They depend on an external source of energy (e.g., light or
heat) to work.
○ Example: A temperature sensor that detects infrared radiation from a heated object or
a photocell that detects light.
• Active Sensors: These sensors generate their own energy to detect and measure physical
quantities. They emit a signal and then measure how the signal interacts with the
environment.
○ Example: A radar sensor emits electromagnetic waves and measures the reflection from
objects to determine their distance. Another example is an ultrasonic sensor that sends
out sound waves and measures how long it takes for them to return.

2. Analog & Digital Sensors

• Analog Sensors: These sensors produce a continuous output signal that is proportional to the
measured physical quantity. The output is usually in the form of a varying voltage or current.
○ Example: A thermistor that gives a continuous voltage corresponding to the
temperature it measures. The voltage increases or decreases as the temperature
changes.
• Digital Sensors: These sensors provide a discrete output signal, often in binary form (1s and
0s). They convert the physical measurement into a digital signal using an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC).
○ Example: A temperature sensor with a built-in ADC that outputs the temperature
reading in digital form, such as 25°C = 00110011 (binary). Another example is a motion
detector that sends "on" or "off" signals depending on whether movement is detected.

3. Scalar & Vector Sensors

• Scalar Sensors: These sensors measure a single physical quantity in a single direction. The
output represents the magnitude of the measured quantity, but not its direction.

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 output represents the magnitude of the measured quantity, but not its direction.
○ Example: A temperature sensor measures only the temperature (a scalar quantity),
which does not depend on direction.
• Vector Sensors: These sensors measure physical quantities that have both magnitude and
direction, meaning they provide information about both how much and in which direction
something is happening.
○ Example: A magnetometer that measures the strength and direction of a magnetic field.
Another example is an accelerometer that measures acceleration in different directions
(X, Y, Z axes).

Here are the types of sensors in simple terms:

1. Temperature Sensor
• Measures temperature and sends the data as an electrical signal.
• Example: Thermometer in a room.

2. Proximity Sensor
• Detects objects or changes in distance without touching them.
• Example: Automatic doors that open when you approach.

3. Light Sensor
• Detects the amount of light in the environment.
• Example: Streetlights that turn on when it gets dark.

4. Motion Sensor
• Detects movement in an area.
• Example: Security cameras that activate when they detect movement.

5. Pressure Sensor
• Measures pressure of gases or liquids.
• Example: Pressure sensors in tires that tell you when they’re low.

6. Humidity Sensor
• Measures the amount of moisture in the air.
• Example: Weather stations to monitor humidity levels.

7. Speed Sensor
• Measures how fast something is moving.
• Example: Speedometer in a car.

8. Gas Sensor
• Detects the presence of gases (like CO2, oxygen, or methane).
• Example: Smoke detectors or gas leak detectors.

9. Accelerometer
• Measures changes in speed or movement direction.
• Example: Used in smartphones to detect tilting or motion.

10. Gyroscope
• Measures orientation or rotation (how something is turning).

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 • Measures orientation or rotation (how something is turning).
• Example: Used in drones to keep them stable.

11. Force Sensor

• Measures the amount of force applied.
• Example: Pressure-sensitive buttons or weighing scales.

12. Touch Sensor

• Detects physical touch, like pressing a button or screen.
• Example: Touchscreens on smartphones or ATMs.

13. Ultrasonic Sensor

• Uses sound waves to measure the distance to an object.
• Example: Parking sensors in cars.

14. pH Sensor
• Measures the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid.
• Example: Used in water treatment plants or swimming pools.

15. Vibration Sensor

• Detects vibrations or oscillations in objects.
• Example: Earthquake detection or machinery monitoring.

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