Sensors: • Sensor is a device that converts signals from one energy domain to electrical domain.
• Devices which perform an “Input” function are commonly called Sensors
because they “sense” a physical change in some characteristic that changes in response to some excitation. For example heat or force as input and covert it into an electrical signal.
• Devices which perform an “Output” function are generally called Actuators and are used to control some external device, for example movement or sound.
2 • Sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus.
• The sensor converts any type of energy into electrical energy.
• It is a transducer used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of energy.
• Example: A pressure sensor detects pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and converts it to electrical signal for display.
• A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus (measurand) and responds with an electrical signal.
• A sensor may have several energy conversion steps before it produces outputs: an electrical signal, since most of stimuli are not electrical. What is a Transducer • A device that converts a signal from one physical form to a corresponding signal having a different physical form. • Transducer is a converter of any one type of energy into another. • Transducers may be used as actuators in various systems. • An example of a transducer is a loudspeaker, which converts an electrical signal into a variable magnetic field (acoustic waves). • Physical form: mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric, optical, chemical… • Transducers: sensors and actuators • Sensor: an input transducer (i.e., a microphone) • Actuator: an output transducer (i.e., a loudspeaker) • A device which converts one form of energy to another → Transducer
• When input is a physical quantity and output electrical → Sensor
• When input is electrical and output a physical quantity → Actuator
• They are embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes,
cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other applications.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!
Classification of Sensors • In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive. Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation signal or a power signal. • Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power signal and directly generates output response. • The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used in the sensor. Some of the means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive etc. • Another classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e. the input and the output. Some of the common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric, Thermoelectric, Electrochemical, Electromagnetic, Thermooptic, etc. • Other major classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital Sensors: • Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e. a continuous output signal with respect to the quantity being measured. • Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital data. The data in digital sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature. Choosing a Sensor Types of Sensors The following are different types of sensors that are commonly used in various applications. All these sensors are used for measuring one of the physical properties like Temperature, Resistance, Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc. • Temperature Sensor • Proximity Sensor • Accelerometer • IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor) • Pressure Sensor • Light Sensor • Ultrasonic Sensor • Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor • Touch Sensor • Proximity Sensor • Humidity Sensor • Tilt Sensor • Flow and Level Sensor Sensor Characteristics: The static accuracy of a sensor indicates how much the sensor signal correctly represents the measured quantity after it stabilizes (i.e. beyond the transient period.) Important static characteristics of sensors include sensitivity, resolution, linearity, zero drift and full-scale drift, range, repeatability and reproducibility. • Sensitivity: It is a measure of the change in output of the sensor relative to a unit change in the input (the measured quantity) • Resolution: It is the smallest amount of change in the input that can be detected and accurately indicated by the sensor. Example: What is the resolution of an ordinary ruler • Linearity: It is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions. Its degree of resemblance to a straight line describes the linearity. • Drift: It is the deviation from a specific reading of the sensor when the sensor is kept at that value for a prolonged period of time. The zero drift refers to the change in sensor output if the input is kept steady at a level that (initially) yields a zero reading. Similarly, the full-scale drift is the drift if the input is maintained at a value which originally yields a full scale deflection. Reasons for drift may be extraneous, such as changes in ambient pressure, humidity, temperature etc., or due to changes in the constituents of the sensor itself, such as aging, wear etc. • Range: Sensor range is determined by the allowed lower and upper limits of its input or output. Usually the range is determined by the accuracy required
• Repeatability: It is defined as the deviation between measurements in a sequence when
the object under test is the same and approaches its value from the same direction each time. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as not to allow significant long term drift. Repeatability is usually specified as a percentage of the sensor range.
• Reproducibility: It is the same as repeatability, except it also incorporates long time
lapses between subsequent measurements. The sensor has to be operation between measurements, but must be calibrated. Reproducibility is specified as a percentage of the sensor range per unit of time. • The dynamic characteristics of a sensor represent the time response of the sensor system. Knowledge of these is essential. Important common dynamic responses of sensors include rise time, delay time, peak time, settling time percentage error and steady- state error.
• Rise time is the time it takes a sensor to pass between 10% to 90% of the steady state response. • Delay time is the time it takes to reach 50% of the steady state value for the first time. • Peak time is the time it takes to reach the maximum reading for the first time for a given excitement. • Settling time is the time it takes the sensor to settle down to within a certain percentage of the steady state value (say 1%). • Percentage overshoot is a measure of the peak minus the steady state value, expressed as a percentage of the SSV. • Steady-state error is the deviation of the actual steady-state value from the desired value. It can be corrected by calibration. Two other terms are used to describe sensor behaviour, and shall be described here. These are accuracy and precision. • The accuracy of a system is the difference between the actual and the measured value. The distinction between accuracy and resolution is important. While resolution is the smallest change in measurement value that can be indicated, the accuracy is determined by the actual indication of the sensor and the real value of the measured entity. Thus while resolution depends solely on the sensor hardware, the accuracy is a function of the sensor hardware as well as the measurement environment and other extraneous factors that modify the sensor behaviour. • The precision is a statistical measure. It is usually indicated by the standard deviation (or variance) of a set of readings of the sensor for the same input.
