TRANSDUCERS

Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding
signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer) which monitors a system
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater) which impose an action on the system
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world actuator system
 INTRODUCTION OF TRANSDUCERS

• A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy

to other form.
• In other word it is a device that is capable of converting
the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to

each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction
element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to
suitable electrical form.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
1. Ruggedness
2. Linearity
3. Repeatability
4. Accuracy
5. High stability and reliability
6. Speed of response
7. Sensitivity
8. Small size
 Specifications of Sensor
• Accuracy
 Specifications of Sensor
• Accuracy: Error between the result of a
measurement and the true value being measured.
• In the fields of science, engineering, industry, and 
statistics,the accuracy of  measurement system is
the degree of closeness of measurements of a 
quantity to that quantity's actual (true) value.
 Accuracy vs. Resolution

True value

measurement
 Specifications of Sensor
• Repeatability/Precision
 Specifications of Sensor
• Repeatability/Precision: the ability of the sensor to
have the same output value for the same input over
a number of trials.
• The precision of a measurement system, also
called reproducibility or repeatability, is the degree
to which repeated measurements under unchanged
conditions show the same results
Accuracy vs. Precision
 Accuracy vs. Precision

Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

accuracy precision accuracy
 Specifications of Sensor
• Resolution
 Specifications of Sensor
• Resolution: The smallest increment of measure that
a device can make.
 Specifications of Sensor
• Sensitivity:
 Specifications of Sensor
• Sensitivity: The ratio between the change in the
output signal to a small change in input physical
signal. Slope of the input-output fit line.
 Selection of Sensor
• Recognize and sense the desired input signal
• Have good accuracy
• Have good precision
• Have amplitude linearity
• Have environmental compatibility
 TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected
on the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating
principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive ,
optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to
produce detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range
requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when
measuring mechanical quantities. There are situation where the
actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the
transducer is subjected to variation in another plan.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-
output relationship as described by the transfer function so as
to avoid errors.
 Contd.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet
the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise
time, setting time and small dynamic error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not
break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be
minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.
 Attributes of Sensors

• Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make sensors function,

such as electro-optics, electromagnetic, piezoelectricity, active and
passive ultraviolet.
• Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of physical variables.
• Size: The physical volume of sensors.
• Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time; continuous or
discrete/analog or digital.
• Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and decision-
making.
• Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating vs. just receiving
signals.
• Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the disturbance in
environment.
• Environmental durability: will the sensor robust enough for its operation
conditions
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.
III.On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV.Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Active transducers :
• These transducers do not need any external source of power
for their operation. Therefore they are also called as self
generating type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices which
operate under the energy conversion principle.
II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent
electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being used.
Piezoelectric Transducer
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source of
power for their operation. So they are not
self generating type transducers.
II. A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external power
source.
III.These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be measured.
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Primary and secondary transducer
III. Analog and digital transducers.
IV.On the basis of transduction principle used.
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as
electrical device.

•The mechanical device converts the physical quantity to

be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical
device are called as the primary transducers, because they deal
with the physical quantity to be measured.

•The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal

into a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device
are known as secondary transducers.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Primary and secondary transducer
III.Transducers and inverse transducers.
IV. Analog and digital transducers.
V. On the basis of transduction principle used.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
d
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled. Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux
Current induced in a coil.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION :

•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when mechanically it is stressed
as shown in fig.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCTION :

•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is

converted to voltage generated when the junction
between dissimilar material is illuminated as shown in
fig.
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTO CONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCTION :

•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the material.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducer and Inverse Transducer

TRANSDUCER:

•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

electrical quantity.

INVERSE TRANSDUCER:

• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

non electrical quantity
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the
resistance change due to the change in some physical
phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a
simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

• Resistive transducers :
Electrical resistivity (also known as resistivity, specific electrical
resistance, or volume resistivity) quantifies how strongly a given material
opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material
that readily allows the movement of electric charge. Resistivity is
commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical
resistivity is theohm⋅metre (Ω⋅m)
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
 POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact
is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element
in helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
 STRAIN GAUGE
• The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into a
resistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.
 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE
• The type of strain gauge are as
1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded
b) Bonded
c) Foil type
2. Semiconductor gauge
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig

• This gauge consist of a wire stretched between two point in an insulating medium such as
air. The wires may be made of various copper, nickel, crome nickle or nickle iron alloys.

• In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which is used for sensing the
pressure. The wire are tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience the compressive
force.
 BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress analysis
and for construction of transducer.

• A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine resistance

wire. The grid is cemented to carrier which may be a thin sheet of
paper bakelite or teflon.

• The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to

prevent it from any mechanical demage.

• The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen

which permit a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.
 BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
• It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are
used to support the wires. Impregnated paper is used for room
temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other
bonding operation, successful starain gauge bonding depends
upon careful surface preparation and use of the correct
bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the
strain gauge, the bond has to be formed between the surface to
be strained and the plastic backing material on which the
gauge is mounted .
.
 It is important that the adhesive should be suited to
this backing and adhesive material should be quick
drying type and also insensitive to moisture.
3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which
have low and stable resistivity and also a low
resistance temperature coefficent
 Contd.
• This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the
bonded metal wire strain gauges.
• The bonded metal wire starin gauge have been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
• Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain
gauge and are used for most general purpose stress
analysis application and for many transducers.
 SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
• Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge
factor is desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher
change in resistance that can be measured with good accuracy.
• The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is
applied to it. The semiconductor gauge depends for their action
upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of resistance due
to change in resistivity.
• Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for
semiconductor gauges.
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
• Resistance of metal increase with increases in
temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction
of platinum résistance thermometer. The platinum
wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating
material such as mica or ceramic.
• This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
• This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid
whose temperature is to be measured.
• The resistance of the platinum wire changes with the
change in temperature of the gas or liquid
• Resistance thermometer are generally of probe type
for immersion in medium whose temperature is to be
measured or controlled.
 Thermocouples
See beck Effect
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a
temperature difference between the joined ends and the open ends,
thermal emf is generated, which can be measured in the open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.