COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ODISHA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY,

BHUBANESWAR

ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: - SENSOR BASED TECHNOLOGIES USED IN
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING IN INDIA AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES

SUBMITTED TO: - DR. P. C. JENA SIR

SUBMITTED BY: - SRI SOURAV KUMAR JENA

MISS SONALI MOHANTY
SRI ISHAN MISHRA
MISS SOUMYA SWAGATIKA SAHOO
MISS RASMITA KUMARI CHANDA
MISS HEMALATA SOREN
SRI SUMAN MURMU
MISS LIPSA MOHANTY
INTRODUCTION:
Can you think of a world without sensors?
A world where our smartphones can’t detect our touch, cars can’t sense
obstacles, and medical devices can’t monitor vital signs. More precisely, it is a
world where technology is blind, deaf, and unresponsive. No, the presence of
different types of sensors has vanished such emptiness of the world.
Sensors detect changes in their environment and convert them into signals that
an observer or an instrument can read.
One more thing: by sensors, it doesn’t mean only physical elements that make it.
It includes its physical packaging, external connections, and associated signal-
processing hardware.
This repetitive duty of sensors has made our lives incredible as we use them in
different fields, from industry to education, from farming to medicine.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS:
Sensors can perform versatile operations that make them separate from each
other. In general, we can classify sensors into four types:
ACTIVE SENSORS:
Active sensors require an external power source to function. They provide the
majority of the output power of the signal.
These sensors are classified into various types. Some of them are:
 Accelerometers
 Light sensors
 Sound sensors
 Pressure sensors
 Temperature sensors
PASSIVE SENSORS:
According to a study, passive sensors generate their own electric signal. There is
no requirement for any external power source. Hence, this sensor technology
gathers data by detecting vibrations, light, radiation, heat, or other phenomena.
Some examples of technologies that use passive sensors are:
 Photographic
 Thermal
 Electric field sensing
 Chemical
 Infrared
 Seismic
ANALOG SENSORS:
Analog sensors produce a continuous
output signal or measurement. The
classification of analog sensors is the
same as active sensors. The analog
signals are directly proportional to the
measurement. They have infinite possible
values within a specific range. For
instance, an analog sensor detecting
changes in external parameters like hausarbeit ghostwriter or light intensity can
give an output anywhere between its output range, like 0V to 5V.
DIGITAL SENSORS:
Digital sensors include digital
accelerometers and digital temperature
sensors. In simple words, they are
digitalized versions of analog sensors.
These sensors typically use pulse width
modulation to generate output pulses.
Likewise, they produce a binary signal,
which means the signal is either on or off, representing a series of 1s and 0s.
Typically, digital sensors are used in systems where the presence or absence of
something is being detected. Some examples of devices with these sensors are
push buttons or light switches that indicate whether a device is on or off.
APPLICATION OF SENSORS:

Accelerometer Sensors
These sensors work by measuring either static
or dynamic acceleration through an
electromechanical sensor. Usually, we can
measure the displacement of a mass with a
position-measuring interface circuit using
these sensors.
The accelerometer converts the displacement
into a digital electrical signal for processing.
The measured acceleration forces can be
static (like constant gravity force) or dynamic
to sense movement or vibrations. However, some accelerometers (like
piezoelectric accelerometers) operate by producing a change in electrical charge
proportional to the amount of force applied.
Gyroscope Sensors
A gyroscope sensor operates on the principle
of angular momentum and gravity.
It uses these forces to determine orientation
and measure rotational motion. This type of
sensor has a spinning rotor to provide angular
momentum. Also, there is a set of gimbals or
pivoted supports to allow the rotor to rotate
about a single axis.
Gyroscopes can sense an angular velocity if the frame is rotating, with units of
angular velocity measured in degrees per second or revolutions per second.
Then, the measurement is converted into a digital electrical signal for digital
processing.
Well, these sensors are applicable in applications like camera-shake detection
systems, motion sensing for video games, and vehicle electronic stability control
systems.
Temperature Sensors
Like the name, temperature sensors can detect thermal parameters. After
detection, they provide signals to the inputs of used devices. However, these
sensors are available in different types depending on their applications. Some
technologies where we can use temperature
sensors are AC and heating systems,
microwaves, industrial machines, and aircraft.
The most commonly used types in modern
electronics are thermocouples, resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors,
and semiconductor-based integrated circuits
(IC).
Contact temperature sensors require physical
contact with the object to measure its temperature and can be used for solids,
liquids, or gases. On the other hand, non-contact sensors detect temperature
using radiation or convection.
Pressure Sensors
These sensors work by following the principle of
piezoresistance or piezoelectric effect. In this
principle, a change in pressure leads to a
change in electrical resistance or generation of
an electrical charge.
The most common constructions of pressure
sensors include a force collector (like a flexible
diaphragm) and a transduction element with
electrical signal generation. Once the sensor
receives the signal, it translates the signal into a quantitative value for the
pressure. Some pressure sensors can produce a strain gauge output like a
Wheatstone bridge device.

Vision and Imaging Sensors

Vision sensors detect the presence of objects or colors within their fields of view.
After that, they convert this information into a visual image for display. However,
these sensors use a combination of image
acquisition and image processing. They
can perform multi-point inspections using
a single sensor.
We can find these sensors in two types:
monochrome and color. These imaging
sensors can perform color and shape
differentiation. Usually, they are used in
measurement, pass/fail decisions, and
other observable characteristics relating
to product quality.
Some notable applications of vision sensors are visual tracking, detection,
recognition, reconstruction, and stereo matching.
Infrared Sensors (IR Sensors)
Objects above absolute zero (0°) temperature emit heat energy in infrared
radiation form. This is the core principle of IR
sensors. Using these sensors, we can emit or
detect infrared radiation to sense specific
characteristics of their surroundings. It
includes the motion and heat of the objects.
Infrared sensors usually have an infrared LED
and an infrared photodiode. Together these
components form a photo-coupler or
optocoupler. Thus, these sensors are present
in applications like radiation and spectrum
measurement, search and track systems,
thermal imaging systems, and gas detection.
Passive infrared sensors use a pair of pyroelectric sensors. They can detect heat
energy in the surrounding environment

Radiation Sensors
You may know it as radiation detectors, too.
These sensors measure radiation emissions or
levels of radiation that a source produces.
Radiation sensors can detect different radiations
like gamma and x-radiation. The uses of these
sensors are present in tasks including
measurement, protection, and search.
As the world has seen advancements in optical
fiber-enabled radiation sensors, they offer
improved sensitivity and sensing coverage. Yet the shape, length, and
connection process of the extrinsic sensing materials can limit their application.
Particle Sensors
Depending on the applications, these particle
sensors are categorized into aerosol, solid, and
liquid particle sensors. For instance, aerosol particle
sensors can determine air quality. They can count
and size the number of air particles. In food
packaging, businesses use metal-based
nanoparticles in their sensors.
Then, you can find particle filters (a type of sensor)
in robot localization, SLAM, and robot fault diagnosis. Similarly, nanomaterial-
based electrochemical sensors measure the concentration of targeted analytes
via changes in current, potential, conductance, or impedance.
Photoelectric Sensors
Photoelectric sensors have an emitter for
emitting light and a receiver for receiving light.
They work following two principles: beam
interruption and beam reflection.
When the emitter sends a light beam out, the
sensing object interrupts or reflects it. In this
process, it changes the amount of light that arrives at the receiver. Then, the
receiver detects the intensity change of light and converts it to an electrical
output.
Leak Sensors
Leak sensors can detect leakages. You can find many
popular water leak detectors in the current market.
Some detectors can even detect low temperatures and
humidity.
These sensors may have a water-sensing cable. You
can expand it up to 10 feet and a 105 dB siren. Some
others may come with automatic shut-off valves. However, these sensors are
effective in detecting the presence of acids, oils, chemicals, or other non-
conductive fluids.
Force Sensors
These transducers convert mechanical input
forces into an electrical output signal. The
most common force sensors include Load
Cells, Strain gauges, and Force Sensing
Resistors (FSRs). You can find the use of these
sensors in load cells like pneumatic,
capacitive, strain gage, hydraulic, and bolt
load sensors.
These sensors help to weigh objects, prevent
machinery from overloading, and measure
tension, compression, torque, strain, stress,
or pressure. Flexible force sensors are rapidly
developing in the intelligent wearable technology field.

Humidity Sensors
If you want to measure the amount of water present in the surrounding air, you
can use humidity sensors. They have a
humidity-sensing element and a thermistor
to measure the temperature. Hence, their
principle of functioning is detecting changes
that alter electrical currents or temperature
in the surrounding air.
Three main types of humidity sensors are
out there: capacitive, resistive, and thermal.
Capacitive sensors use a capacitor as the
sensing element. They measure the change
in electrical permittivity of the dielectric
material to calculate the relative humidity values. Then, resistive humidity
sensors use a moisture-absorbing (hygroscopic) material.
Electrical Sensors
These sensors detect the changes in their
environment. Then, convert those changes
into electrical signals. Thus, you can classify
them based on the physical parameters they
sense, their applications, or the industry in
which they are used.
Some notable electrical sensors are
temperature sensors, thermocouple sensors,
and proximity sensors. You can find the
applications of electrical sensors in railway
systems, fan, pump, and heater monitoring.

Flow Sensors
You can measure the flow rate or quantity of a moving liquid or gas using flow
sensors. These sensors can be classified into various types. They can be positive
displacement, differential pressure, thermal,
target, paddle wheel, and magneto-inductive
sensors.
Positive displacement sensors measure the
fluid’s volume directly when passing through
the device. Differential pressure flow sensors
are popular due to their cost, performance, and
versatility. Then, thermal flow sensors are used
in healthcare and industries for tracking flow
intensities.
Flow sensors are found in measuring oils, gasoline, hydraulic fluid, and home-
installed metering of water and gas. Also, they have automotive applications like
measuring air entering the air intake system of an engine.
 SENSOR BASED TECHNOLOGY USED IN RENEWABLE ENERGY
(1) Agrivoltaics: The integration of solar panels with agricultural
activities allows for dual land use, generating renewable energy while
providing shade to crops, enhancing water efficiency.

(2) Floating Solar Systems: Installing solar panels on water bodies

reduces land usage and water evaporation, contributing to sustainable
energy generation.
 (3) Hydrogen-Powered
Tractors: Innovations like
New Holland's NH2
hydrogen-powered tractor
utilize renewable energy
sources to produce
hydrogen, offering a clean
alternative to traditional
fuel-powered machinery.
(4) Solar-Powered Irrigation Systems: Solar panels power irrigation
systems, reducing energy costs and promoting sustainable water use in
agriculture.
(5) Machine Learning for Irrigation Control:Machine learning
algorithms, such as Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) neural networks, are
employed to control water pumps based on real-time sensor data,
optimizing water usage in irrigation systems.
APPLICATIONS OF SENSOR-BASED TECHNOLOGIES IN RENEWABLE ENERGY
 INDIA
🌞 1. Solar Energy
* Sensors like pyranometers, temperature sensors, and dust sensors are used to
optimize photovoltaic output.
* Smart solar irrigation systems use soil moisture sensors and irradiance
sensors (e.g., under the *PM-KUSUM scheme*).
Sensors Used:
Irradiance Sensors (Pyranometers): Measure solar radiation to optimize panel
placement and efficiency.
Temperature Sensors: Monitor PV module and ambient temperatures.

Dust Sensors: Detect dust accumulation on solar panels to schedule cleaning.

Sun Trackers with Position Sensors:

Adjust solar panels’ angle to follow the sun for maximum energy capture.
Voltage and Current Sensors: Measure electrical output and detect faults.

Applications:
* Smart solar inverters
* Solar microgrids
* Solar-powered irrigation systems with automatic adjustment
* Remote monitoring of solar farms (used in PM-KUSUM scheme)
🌬 2. Wind Energy
* Wind speed, direction, and vibration sensors are used in large wind farms.
* SCADA systems (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) have been
implemented in projects like those in *Tamil Nadu and Gujarat*.
Sensors Used:
Anemometers: Measure wind speed.

anemometer wind vane

Wind Vanes: Determine wind direction.
Vibration Sensors: Detect mechanical
issues in turbines.
Strain Gauges and Load Sensors: Monitor
stress on turbine blades and towers.

Strain gauge load sensors

3. Small Hydro Energy
* Water level sensors and flow meters are applied in small and micro-hydro
units, especially in *hilly states like Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand*.
Sensors Used:
Flow Meters & Pressure Sensors: Monitor water flow and head pressure.
Turbine Speed Sensors: Optimize turbine performance.
Level Sensors: Detect reservoir or canal levels.

Flow sensor -level sensor

Applications:
* Remote monitoring of micro and mini hydro plants in hilly regions (e.g.,
Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim)
* Automation of sluice gates and water control
♻ 4. Bioenergy and Biogas
* Rural biogas units utilize temperature, gas concentration, and pressure sensors
to improve efficiency.
Sensors Used:
Methane Gas Sensors: Monitor gas production
quality.

Methane gas sensor temperature sensor pressure sensor

pH and Temperature Sensors: Control fermentation conditions in digesters.
Pressure Sensors: Manage gas storage and pipelines.
Applications:
* Smart biogas plants in rural areas* Monitoring systems for biomass power
generation (e.g., from agricultural waste)
Use Cases in India:
National Solar Mission: Uses irradiance and tracking sensors for panel
performance.
PM-KUSUM Yojana: Promotes solar pumps with sensor-based motor controllers.
Smart Cities Mission: Solar rooftops and waste-to-energy projects using IoT-
enabled sensors.
Wind energy SCADA in Tamil Nadu & Gujarat: Real-time monitoring via sensor
networks.
Benefits:
* Improved efficiency and uptime
* Reduced maintenance costs
* Better resource utilization
* Enhanced grid stability and forecasting
* Empowerment of rural/remote areas with decentralized smart systems
 AROUND THE WORLD
🌍 Global Applications of Sensor-Based Technologies in Renewable Energy
🌞 1. Solar Energy
Countries Leading: USA, China, Germany, UAE, Australia
Technologies:
Solar resource assessment using irradiance and weather sensors.
Sun-tracking systems in large solar farms (e.g., in California’s Mojave Desert).
AI + IoT sensors for predictive maintenance.
Drones with thermal sensors for real-time inspection.
🌬 2. Wind Energy
Countries Leading: Denmark, USA, China, UK, Netherlands
Technologies:
Smart SCADA systems with vibration and wind speed sensors.
Blade health monitoring using acoustic and strain sensors.
Floating offshore wind turbines with wave and tilt sensors.
💧 3. Hydro Power
Countries Leading: Brazil, Canada, China, Norway, India
Technologies:
Smart water level sensors in dams for real-time control.
Seismic and pressure sensors to detect early warning signs of structural failures.
IoT in micro-hydro systems for remote rural electrification (e.g., in Africa and
♻ 4. Bioenergy
Countries Leading: Germany, USA, Sweden, India
Technologies:
Biogas digesters with gas composition, pH, and temperature sensors.
Smart waste segregation systems using optical and proximity sensors.
🔌5. Smart Grid & IoT Integration
Global Trend: Europe, North America, South Korea, Japan
Technologies:
Smart meters, real-time consumption sensors.
Energy storage systems with thermal and voltage sensors.
Remote control and automation of power flow.
Global Benefits:
* Increased energy yield
* Remote diagnostics and reduced manpower
* Better grid integration.
 SENSOR BASED TECHNOLOGIES USED IN FARM MACHINERY
Agricultural Machinery Uses In Precision Farming
The use of agricultural machinery has revolutionized farming operations around
the world, allowing for large-scale farming as we see today. From GPS-guided
tractors to automatic irrigation systems, advancements in agricultural machinery
have helped farmers work more efficiently and productively at all levels. When
contemporary agricultural equipment is paired with precision farming, the
possibilities are expanded to new heights, ensuring a more practical use of
resources, enhanced yields, and a minimized environmental footprint.
Benefits Of Using Agricultural Machinery
 Increased Farm Productivity
 Less Understaffing And Reduced Labor Costs
 Improved Operation Precision
 Higher Agricultural Earnings
What Are The Different Types Of Agricultural Machinery?
Crop producers can do a wide range of field operations with more precision and
versatility thanks to an assortment of innovative agricultural equipment and
attachments. The following categories best describe modern machinery in
agriculture.
Equipment For Soil Cultivation And Tillage
Planting Equipment
Machinery For Irrigation And Water-Spreading
Fertilizing And Pest Control Machinery
Equipment For Harvesting And Threshing
Getting Use Of Smart and Sensor Based Agricultural Machinery In Precision
Agriculture
Hand-operated agricultural machinery has historically required a lot of human
labor as well as solid knowledge and dexterity. Nonetheless, modern farming
necessitates accurate operations covering vast swaths of land, and human labor
often cannot deliver the precision and efficiency needed for these tasks. Because
of this, improving the level of automation and accuracy is the next step in
agricultural machinery development. Let’s dig deeper into its most prominent
realizations.
(A)GPS/GIS-Integrated Tractors & LIDAR (For Precision Planting)
Modern tractors are now equipped with GPS and GIS systems, enabling:

• Precision navigation

• Auto-steering for sowing, fertilizing, and harvesting

• Better land mapping and management

*LIDAR* (Light Detection and Ranging) enhances these systems by:

• Creating 3D field maps

• Detecting obstacles and terrain

📌 India: Seen in high-end tractors from John Deere and Mahindra. Precision
farming pilots in Haryana and Karnataka have shown great promise.
GPS-equipped tractors allow for pinpoint field navigation and complete control
over field operations. So, growers can plant with exact row spacing, minimizing
gaps and overlap. Modern electronic-controlled seed singulation devices can
significantly increase planting productivity and yields while also significantly
reducing the inefficiencies of mechanically powered seed metering systems .
To take things a step further, employ satellite technology to conduct variable
rate sowing in your fields. With the Multilayer map feature in EOSDA Crop
Monitoring, you can effortlessly combine several types of data, such as
vegetation indices and elevation data, on a single map, creating a
comprehensive tool for agricultural machinery management and optimizing
variable rate seeding. The generated map can be imported into your machinery
in ISO-XML or SHP formats to make the perfect planting plan a reality.
(B)Ultrasonic Sprayers (Sensor Based Precision Irrigation)
Ultrasonic sensors are used in smart spraying systems. They detect the presence
and shape of crops, particularly in orchards and vineyards. Based on this:

• Sprayers automatically turn ON/OFF only when needed.

• Reduces pesticide/fertilizer use by up to 40%

• Protects environment and reduces chemical exposure

📌 Global Usage: Common in viticulture and fruit plantations in Europe, the
USA, and slowly entering Indian horticulture.
Sensors mounted on modern tractors monitor various factors like crop health,
soil state, and weather conditions. With this data in hand, farmers may make
better-informed choices regarding agricultural water management, irrigation,
and other farm-related activities. The resulting irrigation precision ensures that
crops are watered for maximum growth with minimal waste, creating a win-win
situation for farmers and the environment.
With the EOSDA Crop Monitoring platform, you can consolidate all of the
data gathered by your equipment from the ground, making it easier to analyze
patterns in vegetation state and incorporate them into irrigation decision-
making. Data manager allows you to easily link your agricultural machinery to
EOSDA Crop Monitoring and effortlessly share data not only on irrigation but
also on planting, fertilizing, harvesting, and more. To facilitate analysis, visualize
the data collected by your machinery through convenient maps on the platform.
(C)IoT-Based Drip Irrigation
Systems equipped with soil moisture sensors automate water delivery,
conserving water and improving crop yields.

(D)Drone-Based Sensors (NDVI / Multispectral Imaging)

Drones equipped with various sensors are revolutionizing agriculture. The most
common sensors include:

• NDVI cameras: Detect plant stress by measuring reflectance in near-

infrared vs red light.

• Multispectral cameras: Capture data in several wavelength bands.

• Thermal cameras: Detect water stress by analyzing leaf surface

temperature.

These help in:

• Monitoring plant health

• Spotting diseases and pests early

• Targeted pesticide application

India: Used by startups like Fasal, CropIn,
and adopted by government initiatives under
Digital Agriculture Mission.
(E)Weed Detection & Variable-Rate Spraying (For Monitoring Crop Health)
Technologies like:

• Blue River's See & Spray

• Weed-IT

• AI-based camera systems

These identify weeds using computer vision and only spray targeted herbicide,
resulting in:

• Chemical savings up to 90%

• Environmental protection

• Reduced input costs

📌 Adoption: Still limited in India but rapidly growing globally in precision
farming systems. With the use of sensors and GPS tracking technology in
planters, smart irrigation systems, and harvesters, farmers can monitor the
condition of their crops in real time based on indicators like moisture or
chlorophyll levels. Some high-tech machinery for agriculture can work
independently, while others are used in combination with GIS (geographic
information systems).
Even though the data collected from the field is highly accurate, large-scale
farmers may struggle with the need for an overwhelming quantity of smart
equipment supporting GIS systems, its high costs, and regular upkeep. In such a
situation, satellite imagery and satellite-based GIS platforms are invaluable. They
can provide you with equally valid information as specialized agricultural
machinery and equipment. Instead of using data from ground sensors, satellite-
based platforms rely on space-derived data, refreshed whenever a satellite
passes over the field and captures a
cloudless image. For example, with only a few clicks in EOSDA Crop Monitoring,
a farmer can generate a ReCl (red-edge chlorophyll index) map of their fields.
This information allows them to pinpoint areas that could require further
monitoring for signs of stress and special attention.
(F)Yield Monitoring Sensors (Smart Harvesting)
These sensors are mounted on combine harvesters and include:

• Grain flow sensors

• Moisture sensors

• Speed sensors
They track:
Crop yield in real time
Crop moisture content
Harvest efficiency
Farmers use this data for yield mapping and site-specific crop management,
reducing costs and enhancing future productivity.
Smart harvesting, which employs agricultural machinery to lessen the demand
for human labor, is one approach to the problem of insufficient workers during
the busy harvest season. These agricultural machines, while running like
clockwork, adapt their settings automatically to maximize the amount harvested
based on crop state, atmospheric conditions, and soil quality.
COMPARISON BETWEEN INDIA AND GLOBAL SCENARIO
Future Trends in Sensor Technology

• AI + IoT + 5G integration for real-time farm monitoring

• Blockchain for end-to-end crop traceability

• Autonomous tractors and drones

• Sensor-enabled robotic arms for harvesting

These innovations aim to:

• Maximize productivity

• Minimize resource use

• Empower data-driven agriculture

📌 Global Push: USA, Netherlands, and Israel are leading. India’s agri-tech
sector is expanding rapidly in this space.
SENSOR BASED TECHNOLOGIES USED IN SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
ENGINEERING: -

IN INDIA: -

In India, sensor-based technologies are increasingly being integrated into soil

and water conservation engineering to improve efficiency, sustainability, and
data-driven decision-making. Below are key sensor-based technologies currently
used or emerging in India for this purpose

🌱 Soil Conservation Sensor Technologies

1. Soil Moisture Sensors

Use: Monitor soil moisture levels in real-time.

Application: Optimize irrigation scheduling, reduce over-irrigation, and prevent

erosion due to runoff.

Examples: Capacitive and TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry) sensors.

Deployment: Used in precision agriculture projects and watershed development

programs (e.g., under PMKSY).
2. Soil Nutrient Sensors

Use: Detect levels of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).

Application: Guide nutrient management and reduce excessive fertilizer

application that can degrade soil and water quality.

Example: Portable NPK sensors integrated with mobile apps.

3. Soil Temperature Sensors

Use: Monitor soil temperature for crop suitability and tillage timing.

Application: Useful in managing planting schedules and preventing soil

compaction.

💧 Water Conservation Sensor Technologies

4. Automated Weather Stations (AWS)

Use: Collect localized weather data (rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind).

Application: Predict rainfall patterns for water harvesting and erosion control
planning.
Deployment: Widely used by IMD, ICAR, and KVKs.

5. Rain Gauges (Tipping Bucket Type)

Use: Accurate measurement of rainfall in a specific region.

Application: Design and monitor water harvesting structures like check dams,
contour bunds, etc.

6. Water Level Sensors

Use: Measure water levels in wells, ponds, and reservoirs.

Application: Manage irrigation schedules and maintain groundwater levels.

Example: Ultrasonic and pressure transducer-based sensors.

7. Flow Sensors (for Irrigation Systems)

Use: Monitor water flow in canals, pipelines, and micro-irrigation systems.

Application: Ensure uniform distribution and minimize water loss.

🌐 Integrated & IoT-Based Systems

8. IoT-Enabled Smart Irrigation Systems

Combine soil moisture, weather, and crop data

using sensors.

Controlled via mobile apps or dashboards.

Used in pilot projects by ICAR, TNAU, and agri-tech startups.

9. Remote Sensing and GIS with Ground Sensors

Integration of satellite data with ground-based sensor data.

Helps in large-scale watershed management, soil erosion mapping, and drought

assessment.

Programs: National Watershed Development Project, MNGREGA Watershed

Works.

Example Projects & Institutions in India

1. ICAR-CRIDA - Soil moisture, AWS sensor technology for Dryland

farming, soil conservation.
2. PMKSY (Per Drop More Crop) - IoT sensors for irrigation Water
conservation.
3. TNAU Precision Farming Project - NPK, weather, soil sensors Optimize
water and fertilizer use.
4. WOTR (Watershed Organisation Trust) - AWS, moisture sensors
Watershed management
 IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES
Sensor-based technologies are increasingly used in soil and water conservation
engineering across various foreign countries to improve efficiency, sustainability,
and data-driven decision-making. Below are some of the key sensor technologies
and how they're applied:

🌍 Sensor-Based Technologies in Soil and Water Conservation (International

Examples)

1. Soil Moisture Sensors

 Use: Monitor real-time soil moisture levels to guide irrigation and avoid
overwatering or drought stress.
 Technology: Capacitive and Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) sensors.
 Country Example:
o USA: Widely used in precision agriculture in California to optimize
irrigation schedules in vineyards and almond orchards.
o Australia: Used in arid regions to prevent overuse of water and
manage droughts.
2. Weather Stations with Sensors

 Use: Monitor rainfall, temperature, humidity, and wind—critical for erosion

control and irrigation planning.
 Technology: Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), remote weather stations.
 Country Example:
o Germany: Integrated in watershed management systems to forecast
runoff and manage flood risks.
o Netherlands: Used in polders for water level and precipitation
monitoring.
3. Tensiometers

 Use: Measure soil water tension to determine plant-available water.

 Technology: Analog or digital sensors.
 Country Example:
o Brazil: Used in sugarcane fields to guide water-saving irrigation
practices.

4. Remote Sensing and Drones with Sensors

 Use: Map soil moisture, vegetation health, and erosion-prone areas.

 Technology: Multispectral and thermal sensors.
 Country Example:
o Israel: Uses drone-based sensors in desert agriculture to detect soil
salinity and optimize irrigation.
o India (foreign-funded projects): Satellite sensors used for soil health
mapping and water harvesting site selection.
5. Groundwater Sensors

 Use: Monitor water table levels and groundwater recharge.

 Technology: Pressure transducers and conductivity sensors.
 Country Example:
o Saudi Arabia: Used in aquifer recharge and monitoring projects due
to scarce freshwater resources.

6. Nutrient Sensors

 Use: Detect nitrate, phosphorus, and other nutrients to avoid fertilizer

runoff and soil degradation.
 Technology: Ion-selective electrodes.
 Country Example:
o Canada: Used in large-scale farms in Ontario to manage nutrient
application and reduce water pollution.
7. Runoff and Erosion Sensors

 Use: Monitor sediment transport and surface runoff.

 Technology: Turbidity sensors, flow meters, and LiDAR.
 Country Example:
 o China: Employed in the Loess Plateau to control massive erosion
through real-time data on sediment load.

🔄 Integration with IoT and AI

Countries like Japan and the USA are combining sensors with Internet of Things
(IoT) platforms and artificial intelligence to make predictive models for soil and
water conservation.
SENSOR BASED TECHNOLOGY USED IN AGRICULTURAL PROCESSING AND FOOD
ENGINEERING:
Introduction:
Agriculture and food engineering are two critical components of the global food
supply chain. With the increasing demand for higher food quality, safety, and
sustainability, traditional methods of farming and food processing are evolving
rapidly. One of the major drivers of this transformation is the integration of
sensor-based technologies. Sensors allow real-time monitoring, data collection,
and automation in agricultural processing and food production systems, leading
to enhanced productivity, precision, and quality assurance.
This project explores various sensor technologies used in agricultural and food
engineering, their applications, benefits, and future prospects.
Sensors:
Sensors are the vital components of monitoring and control system in food
industry to prevent malfunction in the process. Sensors are based on physical,
chemical, or biological response from the environment. There exists a strong
need for rapid and sensitive detection of different components of foods and
beverages along with the food borne and water borne pathogens, toxins and
pesticide residues with high specificity. Sensors transform real magnitude into
usable signals, most often in the form of an electric signal transmitted to human
readable display system.
The following factors are considered while selecting the sensor
i. Sensor Accuracy
ii. Calibration – requirements and methods
iii. Size of the sensor
iv. Cost of the sensor and cost of replacement
v. Output repeatability
vi. Circuit complexity
vii. Resistance to contamination
viii. Reliability of the sensor
Types of sensors used in food processing industries:
i. Proximity sensors (inductive, capacitive, and ultrasonic)
ii. Temperature sensor (resistance temperature detector, infrared sensor,
thermistor
and thermocouple)
iii. Humidity sensors (optical, gravimetric, capacitive, resistive, piezoresistive, and
magnetoelastic sensors)
iv. Bio-sensor (amperometric, conductometer, thermometric biosensor and
potentiometric biosensor)
v. Chemosensory
vi. Pressure sensors
vii. E-tongue taste sensors
viii. Torque sensors,
ix. Freshness sensor
x. PH-sensor and gas sensor

Proximity Sensor:
This is an electronic-sensor, can able to detect the presence of close by objects
without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an EMR and looks
for changes in the return signal.
1. Inductive sensors:
These detect metal objects (ferrous or
nonferrous). for the ferrous metal it has
longer sensing range from 5mm to40mm.
Nonferrous metal do not have iron in
them, this can reduce the sensing up to
60%. When a ferrous material enter the
magnetic field Electrical current known as
eddy current are induced on the surface. This eddy current induces a power loss
in the surface in the presence of metal surface.
 2. Capacitive sensors:
Capacitive sensors can detect dielectric
material (both higher and lower dielectric
material) such as liquid, glass, plastic wood
and granulated substance. These capacitive
sensors can detect the dielectric constant
of 1.2 and more. In the capacitive sensors, two plates are located in the sensory
form. As the target enters the sensors range the capacitance of the two plate
increases thus cause the change in accelerated frequency. This help in
identifying the dielectric material in the food.
3. Ultrasonic sensors:
Ultrasonic sensors can work in smoke, dust,
fog, different color, texture and steam. This
can detect the object over a long distance.
This works great on solid material (plastic,
glass and plastic) suies, gar, flour, potato,
water, oil and juice. This is also
independent of environmental changes like
temperature, noise, light etc. this sensor is
most commonly found in automated sensors. This sensor most commonly used
to measure multiple variables, such as wind speed and direction, tank fullness,
and speed through air or water, and can detect targets in a solid, liquid, granular,
or powder state.

Thermo-sensors:
It is a device, used for temperature measurement through an electrical signal.
This electrical signal will be in the form of electrical voltage and is proportional
to the temperature measurement. These thermo sensors have wide range of
application in Process control, Food inspection, Freezers, Fermenting units,
Baking ovens and Cook- and smoking units.
1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
thermistor:
A thermally sensitive resistor is a thermistor
that cans exhibits a large, predictable, and
precise change in resistance correlated to
variations in temperature. NTC thermistor can effectively operating range is -50
to 250 °C.
2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):
An RTD, also called as a resistance
thermometer. This RTD can measure
temperature by comparing the
resistance of the RTD with
temperature. RTD can operate at the
range of -200 to 600 °C.
3. Thermocouple:
This thermocouple consists of two wires
of different metals connected at two
points. The difference voltage between
these two points reflects proportional
changes in temperature. Accuracy of the
thermocouple is low ranging from 0.5 °C
to 5 °C. However, they operate across the
widest temperature range, from -200 °C
to 1750 °C.

4. Semiconductor-based sensor :
most sensitive temperature sensors. They also have the slowest responsiveness
(5 s to 60s) across the narrowest temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).
Biosensors:

A biosensor is device, used to measure concentration of analyte. In biosensors, a

biological material (enzymes, antibody, whole cell and nucleic acid) is used to
interact with the analyte. This interaction produces a physical and a chemical
change which is detected by the transducer and converts in to a electric signal.
The electric signal is directly proportional to the concentration of the analyte.
This signal is interpreted and converted to analyte concentration present in the
sample. It is usually constructed from three components: receptor(biological
compound), transducer and electronics.

1. Potentiometric biosensors:
Potentiometric biosensors are built on ISFET (ion sensitive field effect transistors)
and ISE (ion-selective electrodes). This sensors measure potential difference
arises during redox reaction (oxidation-reduction reaction. The major outputting
signal is possibly due to ions assemble at the ion-selective membrane interface.
Current flowing through the electrode is equal to or near zero. The electrode
follows the presence of the monitored ion resulting from the enzyme reaction.
 2. Amperometric biosensors:
The amperometric biosensors working
electrode is usually a noble metal, the
biorecognition component. This
amperometric biosensors measure the
flow of electrons arises during the
reaction.

3. Thermometric biosensors:
There are many more biological
reactions are connected with the
absorb (endothermic reaction) or
release (exothermic reaction) of heat
and it is a basic of thermometric
Biosensors. The thermometric
biosensors are also known as
calorimetric biosensors. In
Thermometric biosensor change in the
heat directly is directly proportional e the extent of reaction (for catalysis) or
structural dynamics of biomolecules in the dissolved state.
commonly used in estimation of of food chemical hazard, like synthetic food
additives, antibodies, veterinary drugs residue, heavy metals, and other toxic
substances.
4. Fiber optic lactate Biosensor:
It measures the change in oxygen concentration, molecules change by the effect
of oxygen in fluorescent dye. The following reaction is reduced by the enzyme
lactate mono-oxygenate. This is commonly used in detection of food pathogen
detection.
5. Conductometric biosensors:
This device measure change in electrical conductivity arises during a reaction.
Most common example is urea biosensors.
 6. Optical biosensors:
These devices measure the light arising from the action of enzyme. The principle
used for optical biosensors are florescence, absorbance etc.
Pressure measuring sensors:
Pressure sensors are alternatively named as piezometers, pressure transmitters,
pressure transducers, pressure indicators, pressure transmitters and
manometers, among other names. A pressure measuring sensor, or instrument,
is a device for measuring the pressure and transform into an electrical signal.
This electrical signal may wary depend on pressure imposed. The pressure of
below atmospheric pressure can be measure by Pressure sensors. Pressure
sensor can be used to measure other variables suchlike water level, water level,
and altitude.
Example:- Absolute pressure sensor, Gauge pressure sensor, Vacuum pressure
sensor, differential pressure sensor
1. Vacuum Sensors:
This is one of the major pressure sensing
devices. Vacuum sensors usual used to
measure the pressure lower than
atmospheric pressure. Medium and high
Vacuum can be measure by thermal and
molecular devices. The sensing element in
vacuum sensor is a heating element
whose temperature rely on the enclosed pressure. When sub-atmospheric
pressure increases directly heating element temperature up rises.
Humidity Sensors:
Humidity is nothing but the amount of water vapour in air that can be a mixture,
such as air, or a pure gas, such as nitrogen or argon. It can affect human comfort
as well as many manufacturing processes in industries such as electronic, food or
pharmaceutical manufacturing, food storage, etc.,. The various physical,
chemical and biological parameters are influenced due to the presence of water
vapour. Controlling the humidity is necessary in the purification of chemical gas,
ovens, dryers, paper and textile production and food processing. Measuring
humidity plays an important part for powder production, especially so in the
production of hygroscopic substances.
The different types of humidity sensors are
(1) capacitive
(2) Resistive
(3) Thermal
(4) gravimetric
(5) optical
(6) piezoresistive humidity sensor.

Capacity Humidity Sensor:

These sensors are one of the basic types
of humidity sensors and these works on
the bases of capacitive effect. They are
often used in applications where factors
like cost, rigidity and size are s of
concern. In Capacitive Relative Humidity
(RH) Sensors, the electrical permittivity
of the dielectric material changes with
change in humidity. The small amount of capacitance is developed in between
the pair of electrodes and dielectric material. Normally the diectric material
used in the most of the capacitive sensor is Plastic or polymers and these
dielectric constant ranging from 2 to 15.
Advantages:-
i. The variation of the output is nearly linear in nature
ii. They provide stable results over long usage.
iii. Can be operate in the wide range of relative humidity
Disadvantages:-
i. It operate in a shorter distance between the sensor and signalling circuit
Applications:-
i. High Voltage AC Systems in order to absorb the moisture from the
system.
ii. Used in the Printers and Fax Machines
iii. Weather Stations
iv. Automobiles
v. Food Processing
vi. Refrigerators, Ovens and Dryers

Resistive Humidity Sensors (Electrical Conductivity Sensors):

Resistive type humidity sensors
which identify the changes in the
resistance value of the sensor
element with respect to change in
the humidity. The basic principle
behind these is the fact that the
conductivity in non – metallic
conductors is reliant on their water
content.
Advantages:-
i. Cost is low
ii. Compact in Size
iii. The distance between the sensor and signal circuit can be large
iv. As there are no calibration standards so these are highly
interchangeable.
Disadvantages:-
i. these are very sensitive to the chemical vapours and other
contaminants
ii. The output readings may change if used with water soluble products.
Thermal Conductivity Humidity Sensors :
These sensor measures the absolute
humidity so these sensors are also called
as Absolute Humidity (AH) Sensors. These
sensor measures the thermal conductivity
of both dry air as well as air with water
vapour.
Benefits:-
i. High corrosive and high
temperature environments conditions these sensors are suitable
ii. Very robust
iii. Higher resolution compared to other types
Disadvantage:-
i. Exposure to any gas with thermal properties different than Nitrogen
might affect reading measurement.
Applications:-
i. Drying kilns
ii. Pharmaceutical plants
iii. Owens
iv. Clothes dryers and drying machines
v. Food dehydration
Optical fiber humidity sensors (OFHSs):
It offers several advantages over electronic humidity sensors for example small
design, toughness, can work in combustible environments and at higher
temperature and pressure ranges, and, most important, their electromagnetic
immunity. Accordingly, they can withstand the sort of unforgiving and requesting
conditions found in processing procedures. .