LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 3, ENDING ON 26TH OF JANUARY, 2024

CLASS TOPIC CONTENT NO. OF PERIOD DURATION

SKELETAL MATERIALS:
SS1 TISSUES AND BONES, CHITIN, CARTILAGE. 3 45 Minutes
SUPPORTING TYPES OF SKELETONS,
SYSTEMS MAMMALIAN SKELETON

CLASS: S.S.1
SUBJECT: Biology
DATE: 22nd Monday – 26th Friday January, 2024
AGE: 13-16 years
REFERENCE MATERIAL: Modern Biology Textbook for Senior Secondary Schools by S.T Ramalingam,
Internet
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL: Marker, Lesson note, Textbook, Whiteboard, Internet.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to state the different
skeletal material, types of skeletons and explain the mammalian skeleton.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Teacher revises the previous lesson with students.
STEP 2: Teacher introduces new topic to students.
STEP 3: Teacher gives detailed explanation of topic to students.
STEP 4: Teacher gives room for the students to ask questions.
STEP 5: Teacher writes note on the board.

CONTENT OF LESSON
PERIOD: 1
SUB-TOPIC: Tissues and Supporting system.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to state the different skeletal
material, types of skeletons and explain the mammalian skeleton.
BOARD SUMMARY
TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM
To carry out life processes, all organisms (plants and animals) need tissues. Tissues are a group of similar
cells that carry out specific functions. Skeleton is the framework of the body which provides support, shape
and protection to the soft tissues and organs in animals. It forms the central core of the human body and it is
covered by muscles and blood vessels and skin.

FORMS OF SKELETAL MATERIALS

There are 3 forms of skeletal materials found in animals. These are 1. Chitin 2. Cartilage 3. Bones

CHITIN: Chitin, a sturdy substance found in arthropods (invertebrates), serves as a resilient outer shell,
comprised of plates that encase or envelop the organisms. While naturally tough, lightweight, and flexible,
chitin can be reinforced through the infusion of proteins, especially in aquatic crustaceans such as crabs,
where calcium carbonate further enhances its strength.
CARTILAGE: Cartilage is a tough tissue found in the skeletons of complex vertebrates. It consists of living
cells called Chondroblasts, carbohydrate and protein fibers. Acting as a shock absorber between bones
during movement, cartilage is tough, flexible, and possesses great tensile strength. It is predominantly found
in mammals and cartilaginous fishes like sharks. Cartilages are of three types in mammals and they are:
Hyaline cartilage: This can be found on the surface of moveable joint, trachea and bronchi (for ease of
respiration) and also in protruding parts of the nose.
Fibro cartilage: Tougher than the hyaline cartilage and can be found in the disc of the vertebral column.
Yellow elastic cartilage: Found in the external ear (pinna) and epiglottis (cartilaginous flap covering the
trachea active during food swallowing).
BONES: Bone is a key component of the skeletal system, consists of living cells (osteocytes), protein fibers
(collagen), and minerals like calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate which contribute to its strength and
rigidity compared to cartilage. Bones are well-vascularized. In the skeletal development of a young
vertebrate embryo, cartilage forms the initial structure, but as the embryo grows, bone cells (osteocytes)
replace cartilage cells through a process called ossification, transforming the cartilage tissue into hardened
bones.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BONES AND CARTILAGE

BONES CARTILAGE
Bones produce red and white blood cells Cartilages do not
Made up of both living cells and dead cells Made up of mainly living cells.
Bones are often rigid Cartilages are often flexible
They are made up mainly of mineral Mineral substances are absent
substances such as calcium
Can never be replaced by cartilage Can be replaced by bones
Flexible only in young ones Cartilage both in young ones and adult is
flexible.

TYPES OF SKELETONS
The three main types of skeletons in animals are:
Hydrostatic skeleton: This is the type present in soft-bodied animals e.g., earthworm, sea anemones etc.
Such animal use pressure to support itself. They also have a muscular body wall which is filled with fluid.
The fluid presses against the muscular wall causing them to contract and exerting force against the fluid.
Exoskeleton: This is the outer skeleton present in arthropods. It is secreted by the cells covering the body of
the animals and the main component is chitin (non-living substance). The exoskeleton also supports animals
against gravity and enables them to move about. Animals with these skeleton types periodically shed the old
skeleton; grow rapidly in size when the new exoskeleton is still soft and extensible. The shedding process is
called MOULTING or ECDYSIS.
Endoskeleton: This is an internal skeleton present in all vertebrates. Endoskeleton of vertebrates are
composed mainly of bones and the bones grow steadily as the animal grows (hence no need for moulting).
Bones of many sizes and shapes make up the endoskeleton of vertebrates. These bones are attached together
as moveable joints by tough flexible fibres called ligaments hence the skeleton is flexible. Muscles are also
attached to the bones usually by tendons to provide posture and bring about body movement.

MAMMALIAN SKELETON
The skeleton of in mammals can be classified into two:
1. AXIAL SKELETON: which consists of the skull, ribs, sternum and the vertebral column.
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON: which consist of limb girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdles), and the limbs
(the fore and hind limbs).
Fig. The Vertebral Column. Fig. The skull

AXIAL SKELETON
The Skull: is made up of flat bones joined together by suture joint which has three parts: Cranium (brain-
box), facial skeleton and the jaws; including maxilla (upper) and mandible (lower). It protects the brain.
Also protects the olfactory organ, eyes, middle and inner ear. Gives shape to the head. Bares the teeth.

The vertebral column: It forms the backbone, protecting the spinal cord. It is made up of 5 groups of bones
called the vertebrate. The 5 groups are:
1. Cervical = 7
2. Thoracic =12
3. Lumbar =5
4. Sacral =5
5. Caudal =4
They are held together with strong ligament and cartilage pads called intervertebral disc. Humans have a
total of 33 vertebrae.

A TYPICAL VERTEBRAE
A typical vertebra has the following structural features:
-A neural canal which is for the passage of the spinal cord.
-A neural spine which projects upward and backwards for the attachment of a muscle.
-Transverse processes for the attachment of muscles and ligaments.
-Centrum; solid bony pieces below the neural canal
-Zygapophyses are the particular surfaces for joining together of successive vertebrates. This could be pre-
zygapophysis (facing inward and upwards) or post-zygapophysis (facing outward and downwards
 Fig. A typical Vertebra.

1.Cervical Vertebrae: The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas while the second is called the axis.
The third to seventh bones are normal cervical bones.

Fig. Atlas Vertebra Fig. Axis Vertebra

Functions of the Atlas vertebra. Functions of the Axis Vertebra

It permits nodding of the head It permits turning and twisting of the head

FUNCTIONS OF OTHER VERTEBRAE

Thoracic Vertebra
Aids attachment of ribs
Assist in breathing
Attachment of muscles at the shoulder and back.
Lumbar Vertebrae
It provides attachment for abdominal muscles
It bears a considerable weight of the body.
Sacral Vertebrae
Joins the pelvic girdle to provide support, rigidity and strength
Caudal vertebrae
Supports the tail
Provides attachment for tail muscle

LESSON EVALUATION
1. What is a skeleton?
2. Discuss the three skeletal materials found in mammals
3. State 5 differences between bones and cartilage
4. Name three types of skeletons.
5. Describe a typical vertebra with the aid of a well labelled diagram.
PERIOD: 2
SUB-TOPIC: Appendicular Skeleton.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to discuss about the
appendicular skeleton.
BOARD SUMMARY
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton is made up of the Pectoral and the pelvic girdles as well as the bones of the limbs
i.e., fore limbs and the hind limbs.

Pectoral

PECTORAL/SHOULDER GIRDLE: found around the shoulder in man and it consists of two halves which
are held by muscles. Each half is made up of 3 three bones, The Scapula, The Clavicle and Coracoids
FUNCTIONS
The pectoral girdle gives attachment to muscles and ligaments.
It provides firm support to the forelimbs.

PELVIC GIRDLE: found around the waist in man and it consists of two halves which are joined to each
other ventrally and to the sacrum dorsally.
FUNCTIONS
It attaches with the head of the femur to form the hip joint.
LIMBS
The limbs include the fore (upper) and the hind (lower) limbs. In most vertebrates, both limbs have the same
basic plan i.e., each limb has a long bone followed by a pair of two long bones next to this is a set of small
bones terminating with five digits.

The forelimbs– This is made up of an upper arm bone called humerus which joins with two other long
bones at its lower end (radius and ulna) to form the elbow joints. Radius and ulna are the bones of the
forearm, next are the wrist bones called carpals which are small bones. These are followed by the digit bones
called metacarpals which terminate in the phalanges (finger bones). In man, each digit has three phalanges
except the thumb which has two phalanges.

The hind limbs-This is made up of thigh bones called femur (which is the largest and longest bone in the
body). It forms the knee joint together with the tibia. A small flat bone called patella is found in front of the
knee joint. Next to the femur are the tibia and fibula. Tibia is longer and larger. These are followed by bones
of the ankle called tarsals. The lower limb terminates as at the digit bone metatarsals and each digit is made
up of three phalanges.

THE RIBS
The ribs are found in the chest region of the body. In man, they are 12 pairs Function. They form a cage
protecting the lungs and the heart. They assist in breathing. The first seven ribs are connected directly to the
sternum through costal cartilages. They are therefore called true ribs. The next five are called false ribs. The
eighth to tenth ribs have a common articulation to the sternum, each one attached to the costal cartilage to
the one above. The eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are called floating ribs because they have no
connection to the sternum.

Fig. The Ribs.

LESSON EVALUATION
1. The Appendicular skeleton is made up of what?
2. Name the three bones that make up the pectoral Girdle.
3. Describe in details the fore limb.
4. Describe in details the hind limb.
5. Name the three sections of the human rib.