GLOSSARY - HUMAN SKELETON

Antagonistic muscles Muscles that opposes the action of another

Appendicular skeleton Part of the skeleton that consists of the upper and lower limbs, supporting the shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle
Arthritis A disease causing painful inflammation and stiffness of the joints
Axial skeleton Part of the skeleton that consists bones of the head and vertebrae
Bone Hard whitish tissue making up the skeleton
Cartilage Smooth slippery connective tissue that is more flexible than the bone
Clavicle Collar bone
Cranium Bone that encloses the brain
Endoskeleton Skeleton located inside the body
Exoskeleton Skeleton located outside the body
Foramen magnum The hole in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes
Hydrostatic skeleton Skeleton that is supported by fluid (water)
Jaws Boney structure that forms the framework of the mouth and contain teeth
Joint Area where two bones meet
Ligament Strong connective tissue fibres that hold bones together
Osteoporosis A condition in which bones are brittle and fragile due to the loss of the tissue as a result of the hormonal changes
Palate The roof of the mouth, separating the cavities of the mouth
Patella Kneecap
Pelvis Hip bone
Scapula Shoulder bones
Skeleton All bones in an organism
Sternum Center of the chest
Synovial joint Type of a joint surrounded by a thick flexible membrane forming a sac that contains the fluid that lubricates the
joint
Tendon Strong connective tissue fibres that hold muscle to bone
Terrestrial Life on land
Vertebrae Back bones
Voluntary muscles The muscles that are attached to the skeleton and are under the control of the will.

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 Skull
AXIAL Vertebral column
Ribs cage

STRUCTURE
Pectoral girdle
APPENDICULAR Upper limbs
Hinge
HUMAN Pelvic girdle
Ball and socket
JOINTS Lower limbs
Gliding/Saddle
Long
Pivot
Short
TYPES of
bones Flat

SKELETAL SYSTEM Irregular

FUNCTIONS/PURPOSE

Blood cell formation

Movement; Protection
Support; Mineral storage
Hearing
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Hydrostatic skeletons: Exoskeletons: Endoskeletons:
Consists of fluid held under pressure in a A hard encasement deposited on the surface of an
closed body compartment. animal. Consists of hard supporting elements buried within the soft
Main type of skeleton in most Cnidarians, As the animal grows, the exoskeleton changes size by tissues of an animal.
Flatworms, Nematodes and Annelids the enlargement of the shell when new layers are added Characteristic of Sponges, Echinoderms and Chordates.
Can control their form and movement by to the outer edge. Sponges have hard spicules of inorganic material or softer protein
changing the shape of the fluid filled Chitin (a polysaccharide similar to cellulose) makes up fibres to reinforce them.
compartments with muscles in the body almost half of the cuticle. Echinoderms have hard plates beneath their skin called ossicles
wall. Chitin are embedded in a matrix made of protein and which are either tightly bound together by protein fibres (ex: sea
Offers no protection of support for large form composite material which increases the flexibility urchins) or loosely bound for changing shape (ex: sea stars).
land animals. and strength of the exoskeleton. The exoskeleton is Chordates have endoskeletons of bone and/or
hardened via the addition of organic compounds and cartilage. The mammalian skeleton consists of over 200 bones
non-organic salts. and is divided into the Axial and
As the organism grows the exoskeleton must be moulted Appendicular skeletons.
TYPES OF SKELETONS and replaced by a larger exoskeleton.
Typically seen in arthropods and molluscs.

Advantages and disadvantages of different animal support systems

ADVANTAGES

Hydrostatic skeleton Exoskeleton Endoskeleton

 Water animals can increase in size because  Plates of armour to support and protect  Greater flexibility
support of water reduces effects of gravity soft internal tissues and organs  Can grow with increase in size
 Land animals can easily burrow into soil for  Muscles and organs are inside for  Limited energy needed for more growth because
protection protection skeleton is added to, not replaced
 Movement needs little energy because it is helped  Provides shape and structural support  Gives shape and structural support
by water or moist land environment  Prevents dehydration  Bones can vary in size to support mass
 Provides good leverage for muscle action

DISADVANTAGES

Hydrostatic skeleton Exoskeleton Endoskeleton

 No solid support for muscles, limbs or  Limits the size of the animal  No overall protection to the body (but vital organs
appendages  Creates difficulties in growth well protected)
 Land animals cannot increase in size because of  Animal needs to moult to increase in size  Muscles located on outside, so can be easily
the limited support of their muscles  Uses a lot of energy in the re-growth damaged
 If land animals got bigger, they would collapse stage after each moulting  Does not prevent dehydration
under their own weight  Poor leverage for muscle action
 No escape from predators
 Cannot quickly escape or make defence
movements
 No protective tissue
 Must have a moist or water habitat to survive and
prevent dehydration

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 HUMAN SKELETON
Axial skeleton
Internal framework of bone, cartilage, or other rigid material SKULL
supporting or containing the body of a human.
The skull consists of 28 flat bones joined together by means of
dovetailing (immovable) joints, called sutures.
RIB CAGE The cranium encloses and protects the delicate brain. Other
delicate organs protected are the eyes, ears and nose.
THE RIBS
At the base of the skull is a large opening, called the foramen
There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each is a flat, curved bone,
magnum through which the spinal cord passes. On either side of
each with two facets for articulation dorsally with the
the foramen magnum is a projection, called the condyle. The first
thoracic vertebrae, one facet at the head of the rib
vertebra, the atlas articulates (moves) on these condyles, allowing
articulates with the facet on the centrum of the thoracic
the skull to move up and down. The only moveable part of the skull
vertebrae, another facet on the tubercle with the facet
is the lower jaw (mandible). Located in the sockets in the bones of
on the transverse process. Ventrally, the first 7 pairs
the upper and lower jaws are the teeth. There are 20 milk teeth in
of ribs are attached to the sternum by means of
a child, while an adult has 32 teeth.
hyaline cartilage. These are true ribs. The next 3 pairs,
instead of joining directly to the sternum, are joined to
thoracic vertebrae and to the cartilage of the true pairs
of ribs (these are called false ribs). The last 2 pairs of VERTEBRAL COLUMN
ribs are called floating ribs since they are not joined
to the sternum at all. This consists of 33 vertebrae. The intervertebral discs (white fibrocartilage) found
between successive vertebrae act as shock absorbers.
THE STERNUM STRUCTURE OF A VERTEBRA
This is a long, flat bone. The two clavicles (collar A typical vertebra consists of:
bones) articulate with the upper regions of the sternum A hard, solid, bony centrum.
and the first true pair of ribs are attached to its sides. A neural arch, forming a protective tube, the neural canal, through which the spinal cord
runs.
THE THORACIC CAVITY A neural spine arising from the arch.
Two transverse processes, one on each side of the neural arch.
The 12 thoracic vertebrae and the pairs of ribs, Four articular surfaces or facets for articulation with successive vertebrae.
sternum and diaphragm form the THORACIC CAVITY REGIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
in which the heart and lungs are situated. The rhythmic
up-and-down movement of the ribs by the contraction 1.CERVICAL (neck) vertebrae consisting of 7 vertebrae. The first two vertebrae
and relaxation of the muscles between them (inter- are the atlas and the axis.
costal muscles) brings about breathing. 2. THORACIC vertebrae consisting of 12 vertebrae. These articulate with the ribs.
3. LUMBAR vertebrae consisting of 5 vertebrae. These are big and strong and
have heavy centra.
4. SACRAL vertebrae, consisting of 4 or 5 vertebrae have fused together to form
a strong, triangular bone, the sacrum.
5. Coccygeal vertebrae, also known as COCCYX or tail (vertebrae) consisting of
3 or 4 small vertebrae which have fused together.
FUNCTIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

i. Neural arches form a protective tube for the spinal cord.

ii. Serves as strong but flexible, longitudinal support of the body.
iii. Compiled
Serves as attachment for skull, by Subject
ribs pectoral andAdvisors - FSDoE and muscles
pelvic girdles,
of the back.
iv. The atlas allows the skull to move up and down, the axis allows the skull to
move from side to side.
 PELVIC GIRDLE
PECTORAL GIRDLE Appendicular skeleton
The pelvic girdle consists of 2 large hip bones, each made up of three
The pectoral girdle consists of: fused bones, the ILIUM, ISCHIUM and PUBIS. The part that we sit
Two SCAPULAE (shoulder blades), each of which is a on is the lower part of the hip, the ischium, and the front is called the
triangular bone, held in position by muscles. Each scapula pubis.
articulates with clavicles (collar bones) as well as the head of
the humerus of the arm which fits into the glenoid cavity of the Two pubic bones are joined by a piece of cartilage, called the pubis
scapula. symphysis. There is a cavity, the acetabulum into which the femur
Two CLAVICLES (collar bones). Each is a curved, rod-like fits. This is a ball and socket joint. The sacrum and coccyx of the
bone, one end of which articulates with the manubrium of the vertebral column are firmly wedged between the ilia of the pelvic
sternum and the top of the scapula, the acromion process. girdle. Therefore the sacrum, coccyx and pelvic girdle form a bony
ring, the pelvis.
THE ARMS (UPPER LIMBS)
FUNCTIONS OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE
Each arm consists of:
i. Attachment for hind limbs
The upper arm bone, the HUMERUS, a long bone, the head of ii. Supports weight/ mass of the body
which articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. This iii. Supports and protects delicate organs. For example the
forms a ball and socket joint and allows movement in all bladder, ovaries, uterus and kidneys.
directions.
The fore-arm bones are the RADIUS and ULNA. The ulna THE LEGS (LOWER LIMBS)
articulates with the humerus at one end, forming a hinge joint,
(commonly known as the elbow), which allows movement in Each leg consists of:
one direction only. At the other end, they articulate with the
carpals (wrist). The radius lies on the inner side of the arm FEMUR (thigh bone) articulating at the upper end with the
when the palm is turned downwards. acetabulum of the hip (ball and socket joint) and at the lower end with
The wrist consists of 8 little bones, the CARPALS. These are the tibia forming a hinge joint at the knee.
arranged in two rows of 4. The hand consists of The TIBIA (shin bone) and the smaller FIBULA. The lower ends
METACARPALS (make up the palm) and finger bones, called articulate with the tarsals.
the PHALANGES, of which there are 14. The thumb has 2 The PATELLA (knee cap) is situated in front of the knee joint. This
phalanges and the other fingers have 3. bone is completely encased in tendon.
The ankle bone consists of 7 TARSALS forming gliding joints. The
largest bone is known as the calcaneum (heel bone).
The arch of each foot consists of 5 METATARSALS.
Toes are made up of 14 PHALANGES.

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 FIBROUS JOINTS
A synovial joint is the most moveable type of joint
JOINTS No movement is required
 Synovial capsule: a collagenous structure which encloses, supports
Bones joined by fibrous tissue
and protects the joint. eg. Sutures of skull
 Synovial membrane: forms the inner lining of the capsule and
secretes the synovial fluid.
 Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage is a good shock absorber and
allows for frictionless movement. Articular cartilage has no blood
vessels so receives nourishment from synovial fluid.
 Ligaments: Hold the bones together.
 Synovial fluid: a lubricating, nourishing fluid within the capsule.

The synovial fluid is the colour of egg white therefore synovial is a Greek
word meaning egg white.

HINGE JOINTS PIVOT JOINT CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS

Allow for a bending movement in one Allow for rotating movement Allow for slight movement
direction only. e.g. The second cervical vertebra, the axis Ends of bone covered by cartilaginous tissue (Articular
has a projection. Cartilage)
e.g. Discs between vertebrae and pubic symphysis between
two pubic bones.

BALL AND SOCKET JOINT GLIDING JOINTS

Allow for a swinging or rotating movement of the limbs. Allow for gliding movement
Pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) the head of the humerus eg. Wrist bones (carpals), ankle bones (tarsals),
(long bone) of the upper arm articulates with the glenoid middle hand (metacarpals), middle foot
cavity. (metatarsals), fingers and toes (phalanges).
Also, pelvic girdle, the femur (thigh bone) articulates with
the acetabulum of the pelvic bones (hip bones).

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 ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES
Antagonistic muscles are pairs of muscles
that work in an opposite direction in relation to
each other.
Example. When one muscle contracts, the
other muscle will relax.
When one muscle relaxes, the other muscle
will contract.

Biceps and triceps are examples of antagonistic muscles.

The biceps is known as the flexor muscle. When bending the hand the biceps
contracts the triceps relaxes.

The triceps is known as the extensor muscle. When extending the hand the
triceps contracts and the biceps relaxes.

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