TH

10 GRADE BIOLOGY LESSON

NOTE
 GRACELAND SCHOOLS ENUGU
SCHEME OF WORK FOR 10TH GRADE SECOND TERM BIOLOGY
S TOPIC CONTENT
/
N
1 TISSUES AND --SKELETAL SYSTEM
SUPPORTING --TYPES OF SKELETON
SYSTEMS IN --BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
ANIMALS
2 VERTEBRATE --THE SKULL
SKELETON --STERNUM AND RIBS
--LIMB GIRDLES
--BONES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
3 SUPPORTING --TYPES OF SUPPORTING SYSTEM IN
TISSUES IN PLANTS
PLANTS
4 NUTRITION --FOOD CLASSES AND SOURCES
IN ANIMALS --BALANCED DIET AND IMPORTANCE
--FOOD TESTS
5 MODE OF --TYPES OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
NUTRITION --FEEDING MECHANISMS IN HOLOZOIC
ORGANISMS
6 THE TEETH --MAMMALIAN TEETH
--ENZYMES
7 BASIC --MEANING AND TYPES OF ECOLOGY
ECOLOGICAL --ECOSYSTEM AND ENVIRONMENT
CONCEPTS --BIOSPHERE, LITHOSPHERE,
HYDROSPHERE, ATMOSPHERE
--HABITATS, NICHE,POPULATION,BIOME
8 LOCAL -- BIOMES IN NIGERIA/ WORLD
BIOTIC
COMMUNITI
ES
9 POPULATION --SAMPLING METHODS

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 TOPIC: FORMS OF TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
1. Describe the three forms of tissues and supporting systems in animals.
2. Define skeleton
3. Describe the three types of skeleton and supporting tissues in animals
4. State the biological significance of skeleton and supporting tissues in animals.
NOTES.
FORMS OF TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS
The main forms or types of materials found in the skeletons of animals are chitin,
cartilage and bone.

1. Chitin:
This is tough, light and flexible materials that make up the skeleton of ARTHROPODS e.g
insects, prawns, scorpions etc.
Chitin in arthropods is used as biting jaws for grinding in the stomach, as lenses of the
eyes, for sound production (e.g. grasshoppers), as sensory organs (antennae and
antemules) for copulatory organs, organs of defence and for ornamental purposes.
A chitinous exoskeleton limits the size and weight of arthropods. The insect shed its
outer shell at intervals and grows larger. This process is called ECDYSIS or MOULTING.
The presence of chitin helps arthropods to adapt to different terrestrial habitats

2. Cartilage:
This is a tough and flexible part of the skeleton of complex vertebrates. It consists of
living cells called Chondroblasts which contain carbohydrates and protein fibers.
There are 3 types of cartilages namely
a. Hyaline Cartilage: Found in the trachea and bronchi of mammals which keeps the tubes
permanently open, surfaces of moveable joints and the tip of the nose
b. Fibrocartilage: Found between the vertebrae of the spine where they form
intervertebral discs.
c. Elastic cartilage: Is present in the ear (pinna)
Function of cartilage

2
 1. It prevents friction between two bones and allows smooth and free movement
2. It absorbs shock between bones
3. It keeps open the trachea (wind pipe) so that air flows into the lungs always.
4. The ear cartilage keeps the pinna (external ear) erect so as to collect sound vibrations
from the air.
5. Cartilage and bone provide the firm areas for attachment of the tendons of the muscles.
6. Fibro-cartilage found in the pubis symphysis allows for considerable expansion of the
pubis during parturition (child birth) without complete breakage.
3. Bone: Bone is the hardest of the vertebrate tissues and a major component of the
vertebrate skeleton. It is composed of scattered living cells (OSTEOCYTES) surrounded
by hard bone materials called collagen which contains inorganic mineral mainly calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate. (collagen is secreted by osteocytes).
In a vertebrate embryo, the skeleton is made up of cartilage, but as the embryo grows,
the Chondroblast (living cells of the cartilage) are replaced by the osteocytes (living cells
of the bone). This causes the cartilage tissues to harden as a result of the deposition of
inorganic minerals. This transformation of cartilage to bone is called OSSIFICATION i.e
the laying down of inorganic minerals in the bone.
A bone usually consists of a hard outer layer (shaft) and a spongy or hollow cavity filled
with bone marrow. Examples of organisms which have bones are mainly vertebrates
like bony fishes, toads, lizards, snakes, birds and mammals.
KINDS OF BONE
Bones are classified according to their shape and length into four classes
a. Long bones: They are found in the limbs such as humerus of the upper arm, radius and
ulna of the lower arm in the fore limb, the femur in the thigh and tibia and fibula in the
leg, the ribs and clavicles. The longest bone in the body is the thigh bone – FEMUR.
b. Short bones: They are largely made up of spongy tissues covered externally by a thin
coat of compact tissues. Examples are bones of the vertebral column, carpals,
metacarpals, tarsal, metatarsals, phalanges and patella.
c. Flat bones: They are thin and plate-like. Examples are the bones of the bones of the
skull, scapula and ilium.
d. Irregular bones: These bones are peculiar in shape, structure and function. Example are
the three ear bones – malleus, incus and stapes. Each bone is named in Latin for its
shape, malleus means hammer, incus means anvil and stapes means stirrup.

SKELETON
A skeleton is defined as a rigid frame work of bones which gives support and shape to
an organism.

3
 Types of Skeleton
1. HydrostaticSkeleton:

This is the type of skeleton produced by soft-bodies animals. They have fluid pressure to
provide support. These tubular animals have a muscular body wall, causing the muscles
to contract, exerting a force against the fluid thus maintains the shape and form of the
animal.
Examples of animals with hydrostatic skeleton are earthworm and anemones.

2. Exoskeleton:
This is a type of skeleton of non-living material which is formed on the outside of the
animal’s bodies. The exoskeleton may cover the entire external surface of the body such
as in insects and many other arthropods where it protects the animals against
desiccation in the dry habitat or serves as hydropfuge against wetting in aquatic habitat.
The main component of an exoskeleton is chitin. The exoskeleton is made up of a series
of plates or tubes attached to joints by sheets of unmodified chitin which makes it
flexible. The living animal is attached to the exoskeleton by muscles. Thus, the
exoskeleton supports the animals against gravity as well as enable the animal to move
about.
Examples of organisms with exoskeleton are invertebrates like crabs, millipedes,
spiders, insects, molluscs, tortoise an turtle.
N/B: Tortoise and Turtle have both exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
3. Endoskeleton: This is the type of skeleton which is found inside the body of animals. It
exists in bony and cartilaginous skeleton of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals.

4
 With the exception of cartilaginous fishes, the endoskeletons of vertebrates are
composed mainly of bones that can grow steadily as the animal grows.
Endoskeleton found in mammals include the skull, backbone, ribs, and bones of the fore
limbs and hindlims.
BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SUPPORTING SYSTEMS
All animals needs some form of support against the pull of gravity in air, water and on
land. The support systems vary in complexity from one animal group to another
depending on whether the animals live in water, crawl or walk on land. Movement is
therefore linked to body support.
Amoeba is always changing its shape due to lack of support system. Paramecium does
not change its shape because of its firm skin called pellicle which acts as a support for
the organism as well as gives a definite shape to it.
Annelids.g Earthworm possess hydrostatic skeleton which work in conjunction with
muscles to bring about locomotion.
Arthropods e.g. Insects, millipedes and crabs, possess exoskeleton which bring about
movement.
In vertebrates, movement is brought about by bones, muscles, cartilages and joints.

EVALUATION
i. What is skeleton?
ii. Briefly describe the three types of skeleton
iii. Explain the biological significance of the skeleton and supporting tissues.
iv. State the three forms of tissue and supporting systems.
Classwork: In groups, discuss what animals would look like without endoskeletonsand
exoskeletons. Use illustrations.
ASSIGNMENT: Make a well-labeled diagram of a bone.

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 TOPIC: VERTEBRATE SKELETON
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe the major components of the vertebrate skeleton
2. Describe the bones of the vertebral column
3. Descibe a joint.
NOTES
VERTEBRATE SKELETON
The skeleton system or bones in vertebrates are divided into two major parts.
1. AXIAL SKELETON: is made up of the skull, vertebral column (backbone) and rib cage
(ribs and sternum).
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON: Is made up of the limbs (fore limbs and hindlimbs) and limb
girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdle).
Therefore, the human skeleton and those of other mammals consists of the following
parts.
1. The skull (cranium)
2. The vertebral column (the back bone)
3. The rib cage (sternum and ribs)
4. The limb girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdles)
5. The limbs (fore and hind limbs)

THE SKULL
The mammalian skull is made up of several flat bones which are joined together by
means of joints called sutures. It covers the brains and other vulnerable sense organs
like the eyes and ears.
The main bones making up the cranium are FRONTAL, PARIETAL, TEMPORAL AND
OCCIPITAL bones. The frontal bones make up the forehead. The parietal bone consists
of top and side walls of the cranium. The temporal bones make up the sides of the
cranium while the occipital bone forms the base of the cranium. At the base of the
occipital bone exists a large hole called FORAMEN MAGNUM through which the brain
joins the spinal cord.
The three main parts of the skull are:
i. The CRANIUM or BRAIN BOX encases the brain and protect it.
ii. The SNOUT or FACIAL SKELETON: which supports the nose, ear, eyes, and muscle of the
cheek.
iii. The JAWS which is made up of the UPPER JAW (Maxilla) and LOWER JAW (Mandible)
which contain the teeth for chewing the food.

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THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN (BACKBONE OR SPINE)

The vertebral column consists of 33 small bones called VERTEBRATE which are placed
end to end to form the backbone whose main function is to protect the spinal cord. The
vertebrae are held together by strong ligaments and separated from each other by
INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS (discs of febrocartilage) which not only absorb shocks but allow
the vertebrae to move smoothly against each other.
There are five groups of vertebrae with the same basic structures of varying dimensions
in mammals. There are cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal vertebrae.
Individual vertebrae are made up of a central body (centrum) that has protrusions from
the top and bottom of it, a neural canal for the passage of the spinal cord, a neural
spine which projects upwards dorsally for the attachment of muscles, transverse
process for the attachment of muscles and ligaments and facets (prominences) which
are smooth surfaces at the front and back for the articulation with adjacent vertebrae.
The vertebrae ware named according to their position in the body.
a. The cervical vertebrae are found in the neck where they support the weight of the
head. They are seven (7) in man and the first two, the atlas and axis allow nodding and
rotation movements of the skull.
b. The Thoracic vertebrae (12 in man) are found in the chest region where they protect
the organs of the chest such as the heart and lungs.
c. The Lumbar Vertebrae are found in the abdomen or lower back and are the weight –
bearing portion of the spine. They are five in number.
d. The Social Vertebrae (Sacrum) found in the hip region or base of the spine and is made
up of 5 fused vertebrae. The sacrum connects to the bones of the pelvis, thus providing
rigidity and strength to the entire skeleton.
e. The caudal vertebrae found in the tail region. The 4 caudal vertebrae are fused to form
the coccyx which does not protrude as a tail in man. The coccyx houses and protects
blood vessels and nerve fibres from the ischium. (one of the bones in the pelvic girdle)

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THE RIBCAGE (sternum and Ribs)

Twelve pairs of ribs and the sternum form the ribcage. The rib cage protects the lungs,
the heart as well as assist in breathing. The ribs are long semi-circular rods connecting
the thoracic vertebrae to the breast bone (sternum).
A typical rib consists of a head (which fits between successive thoracic vertebrae) a neck
and a shift. Each rib articulates with the thoracic vertebrae by two processes: the
capitulum which articulates with facets of the centre of two nearby vertebrae and the
tuberculum (tubercle) which articulates with a transverse process.
The first seven pairs are called true ribs because they are connected directly with the
sternum in front by coasted cartilages. The eighth, ninth, tenth pairs of ribs are called
false ribs because they are connected to the sternum by a common cartilage. The
eleventh and twelfth pairs are called floating ribs because they have no connection
whatsoever with the sternum.
LIMB GIRDLES (PECTORAL AND PELVIC GIRDLES)
The girdle of the fore-limbs is called the pectoral girdle consists to two halves each of
which is made up of the shoulder blade or scapula fused with coracoid and the clavicle
or collar bone which connects the scapula with the sternum in the middle of the thorax.
The hindlimb girdle or pelvic girdle is also made up of two halves each of which is made
up of three bone – the ilium, ischium and pubis, all three contributes to the socket or
acetabulum in which the round head of the thigh bone or femur fits.
Limbs (fore limbs and hind limbs)
The fore limit is attached to the pectoral girdle. This is made up of a long, strong bone of
the upper arm called the humerus the two bones of the fore-arm – the radium and
ulna, the multiple bones of the wrist and palm called the carpals and metacarpals
respectively and finally the finger bones, the phalanges.
The hind limb is similar to the fore limb in components and structure. The single, strong
bone of the lower limb is the femur(longest bone) in the body, followed by the tibia and
fibula of the fore-leg. The Tarsals and metatarsals and phalanges occupy similar
positions on the hind limb bones as carpals, metacarpals and phalanges of the fore limb.
JOINT
A joint is a point or place where two or more bones meet.

8
 The surface of a bone which touch at a joint are called articular cartilage which
prevents the wear and tear of the bone surfaces. The bone ends are held together by
tough, slightly

elastic tissue calledligaments.

Inside the ligament is a membrane called synovial membrane which secrete a viscous
lubricating fluid called synovial fluid which lubricants the joints and acts as shock
absorber.
There are two types of joints in mammals namely:
i. Immovable joint or fixed joints: are regions where two or more bones are firmly
attached to one another in such a way that movements of these bones are note
possible. Examples is suture joint that joins the bones of the skull.
ii. Movable Joints (Synovial joint): are regions where two or more bones meet in such a
way that the bones move over each other, thus making movement possible.
There are four types of movable joints:
a. Ball and socket joints: In which the rounded head of one fits into a hollow cavity or
socket of another or other bone. It allows movement in all planes (direction). Ball and
socket joints are found in the shoulder and the hips.
b. Hinge Joints: Allow movement in only one place. Example are found in the Elbow,
knees, and fingers.
c. Gliding or sliding joints: allow movement in several directions/ planes i.e allow the
sliding of bones over one another. Example of gliding joints are found at the wrist and
ankles.
d. Pivot Joints: allows the rotating movement of one part of the body on another as well
as permits nodding and limited bending movements. It is found in the neckbone
between the atlas and axis vertebrae. The odontoid process of the axis acts as a pivot
which allow the rotation of the head on the vertebral column (i.e. the atlas and the skull
together rotate about the odontoid process).
EVAULATION
i. State the five major components of the human skeleton
ii. Describe the bones of the vertebral columns
iii. Describe a typical vertebra

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iv. Briefly describe the four types of movable joints.

TOPIC: SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. State the five types of supporting tissues.
2. Describe the location and the arrangement of supporting tissues in plants.
NOTES
TYPES OF SUPPORTING TISSUE IN PLANTS
There are five main supporting tissues in plants namely: parenchyma, collenchyma,
sclerenchyma, xylem, phloem.
1. Parenchyma Tissue

Location: Parenchyma tissues are found in the cortex and pith of stems, in leaf
mesophyll and the pulp of fruits
Feature: They are the first set of cell (meristems) from which all other tissues are
derived. Parenchyma tissues are composed of uniform parenchyma cells with large
central vacuoles (which allow the cells to store and regulate ions) and thin walled. They
are living cells at maturity with cellulose and many air spaces within them.
Function:
i. They aid the synthesis of food as well as storage of food and water.
ii. They store and regulate ions
iii. When the vacuoles are filled with sap, parenchyma tissues give firmness and rigidity to
the stems of herbaceous plants.
2. Collenchyma tissues

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 Location: Collenchyma tissues are located in the cortex of stems, roots and in the
hypodermis beneath the epidermis. It occurs around the veins in dicot plants (leaves).
Features: Collenchyma tissue is made of uniform collenchyma cells that have irregularly
thickened walls. They are living cells at maturity and have a thick primary cell wall made
of cellulose and pectin.
Function:
i. They provide strength and support in growing shoots and leaves
ii. They give flexibility and resilience (ability to stretch easily) to plants
3. Sclerenchyma tissues (fibres)

Location:Sclerenchyma cells are found in the cortex, pith, phloem, fruits and seeds as
well as seed coats of seeds and the shell of nuts where they are packed together to
form hard covering.
Features: Sclerenchyma cells are thickened by the deposition of lignin, cellulose and
hemicellulose, lignin is the main component of wood which provide strength and rigidly
of stems.
There are two types of sclerenchyma cells: there are fibres (fibre cells) which are long
slender cells that occur in strands or in bundles and the sclereids (stone cells) which
have very thick, lignified walls in the shape of a star.
Function:

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i. Sclereids give stiffness to the cortex
ii. Fibres provides strength and flexibility to plants
N/B: Because of the load-bearing capacity of fibers, they can be processed easily into
fabrics.

4. XYLEM (WOOD)

Location: Xylem is mainly found in the vascular tissues of stems, roots and leaves.
Features: Xylem tissues are dead, water conducting cells. They are thickened by lignin
as well as woody fibres. They cells are long narrow tubes placed end to end.
PHLOEM TISSUES

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 LOCATION: Phloem tissues are located within the vascular bundles of all plants.
Feature: They are made up of four cells namely,sievetubes,phloem parenchyma,
companion cells and phloem fibres.
Function:
i. Phloem tissues conduct manufactured food from their area of synthesis (leaves) to
areas where they are needed (roots and stems)
ii. They assist the xylem in providing support to the entire plant.
FUNCTION OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS
1. STRENGTH:Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma and xylem tissues provides the
necessary strength required by plants because their walls are thickened and lignified.
2. RIGIDITY: Parenchyma tissues give rigidity and firmness to the plant making it rigid
enough to hold the leaves up and to provide support the flowers and fruits.
3. CONDUCTION: Xylem and phloem
tissues conduct water and manufacture food respectively with the plant.
4. DISTINCT SHAPE:Xylem tissues provide the plant with its distinct shape.
5. SYNTHESIS AND STORAGE OF FOOD:Food is synthesis and stored by the parenchyma
tissues.
6. SUPPORT AND PROTECTION: Collenchyma, xylem and phloem tissues provide support
and protection to the plants.
7. RESILIENCE AND FLEXIBILITY: Collenchyma tissues of the stem provide resilience and
flexibility to the plants. The ability of a plant to regain its original position after being
bent by wind or water is calledresilience of the plant.
EVAULATION:
a. List five supporting tissues in plants
b. State the location, features and function of each supporting tissue listed in (a) above
c. Describe five functions of the supporting tissues in plants.

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 d. what kind of tissue is illustrated above
ASSIGNMENT:
Make a labeled diagram of the vascular tissue arrangement in a transverse section of a
dicot stem.

TOPIC: NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. List the types of food substances
2. Discus the importance of and what makes up a balanced diet
NOTES
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
FOOD SUBSTANCES
Animals nutrition involves the study of food substance balances diets and digestive
enzymes.
Food substance are classified as follows:
i. Carbohydrates
ii. Proteins
iii. Fats and oils
iv. Vitamins

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 v. Mineral salts
vi. Water and
vii. Roughage
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils and water are known as PRIMARY FOOD
SUBSTANCES because they are necessary for the maintenance of life while Vitamins and
Mineral Salts are known as WELFARE FOOD SUBSTANCES because they are essential for
the well being of the individual.
CLASSES OF FOOD SUBSTANCES WITH EXAMPLES
1. CARBOHYDRATES: Carbohydrates are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen atoms with the general formula C x(H2O)y. The main sources of
carbohydrates include yam, rice, maize, millet, guinea corn,garri, potato etc.
carbohydrates are the main source of energy in the body. They are used to build certain
body parts e.g exoskeleton of arthropods. They also form the mucus in our bodies.
Carbohydrates are classified into three major groups
a. Monosaccharides or simple sugars: They are simple sugars which consist of one
molecule each. They are the most important energy – storage molecules in an
organism. Their chemical formula in C6H12O6. Examples are glucose, fructose and
galactose.
b. Disaccharides or Reducing sugar: These contain two units of simples sugars and are
represented by the formula C12H22O11. Examples are Maltose, Sucrose and Lactose.
A disaccharide is formed when two molecules of simple sugar combine and one
molecule of water is removed
Glucose + Glucose -H2O Maltose (Malt Sugar)
Glucose + Galatose –H2O Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Glucose + Frutose –H2O Sucrose (Cane Sugar)
c. Polysaccharides or Complex Sugars: These consist of more than two simple sugars or
several types of simple sugars joined together. They are represented by the formula
(C6H10O5)n where n represent a large number. Example are starch, glucose, chitin and
cellulose.
2. PROTEINS: Proteins are organic compounds consisting of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
and Nitrogen but some contain little phosphorus and sulphur atoms. Examples of food
rich in animal proteins are milk, egg, fish, meat and snail while plant protein sources
include beans, groundnut, soya beans and peas.
Proteins are the main building substances necessary for building new cells and replacing
old ones I,e building materials of all cell membranes, chromosomes, cytoplasm and cell
organelles.
They are also essential for the formation of enzymes and hormones, white blood cells
and antibodies proteins are only used for energy when the carbohydrate and fat
reserves are exhausted.
Proteins are complex structure (macromolecules) made up of smaller units called
Amino Acids
3. FATS AND OILD (LIPIDS)
Fats are complex organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Sources
of lipids are palm oil, butter, cheese, groundnut, meat, fish, melons, coconut etc.

15
 Fats are solids at room temperature while oils are liquids. Lipids are made up of fatty
(carboxylic) acids and glycerol.
Lipids provide the body with energy. They serve as solvent for fat – soluble vitamins and
hormones.
They are important component of cell membranes. They also help in the maintenance
of body temperature.
4. VITAMINS: Vitamins are organic substances needed in small quantities in the body for
healthy growth and development. The sources of vitamins include palm oil, milk, egg
yolk, vegetables, fruits, ground nuts, liver, fish, kidney etc.
Vitamins are biocatalysts i.e they promote chemical reactions in the body. There are
two groups of vitamins
a. Fat – soluble vitamins: These are vitamins that are soluble only in fats (i.e absorbed
with fatty acids and glycerol into the lacteals in the small intestine) e.g Vitamins A, D, E
and K. vitamin A is for healthy eyes and skin; D for strong bone and teeth formation, E
for reproduction as well as prevent cell membrane damage (as anti-oxidant) and K for
blood clothing.
b. Water – Soluble Vitamins: These are vitamins that re soluble only in water e.g Vitamins
B and C. vitamin C is for maintenance of intercellular substance in bone cartilage and
define, formation of connective tissues e.g collagen and healthy growth, vitamin B 3 is
for the formation of coenzymes used in cellular respiration, B 12 for red blood cell
formation.
NOTE: Fat – soluble vitamins can be stored in the bodies of plant and animals while
water – soluble vitamins cannot be stored and must be renewed daily.
Vitami Deficiency Diseases
n
C Scurvy (bleeding gums, poor healing of wound
(Ascor
bic
Acid)
A Night blindness, Xeropthalmia
(Retin
ol)
D Ricket, Osteomalacia (bone deformity in children and adults respectively)
(Calcif
erol)
B – Beriberi (nerve inflammation)
Compl
ex
B3 Pellagra (weakness, loss of weight, diarrhea)
(Niaci
n)
K Inability of blood to clot
Protei Kwashiorkor
n
Iodine Goiter

16
 Iron anaemia
and
coppe
r

5. MINERAL SALTS: Mineral salts regulate the metabolism of the body some of them are
components of enzymes, pigment and structural parts while some are important in the
formation of bones and teach. Yet others are important in blood formation.
Minerals that are necessary in the diet are divided into 2 groups – macro elements,
which are needed in large quantities e.g Nitrogen, Sodium, Calcium, Sulphur,
Magnesium and Phosphorus and Micro elements which are needed in small quantities
e.giodin and iron.
Sources of mineral salts include leafy vegetables, liver, kidney, plantain, meat, fish, egg,
salt, shrimps (seafood), snail, fruits, chicken, milk, cheese, whole grains, etc.
6. WATER: Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen (H 2O) water does not give energy to
the body but it is essential in all life processes. About 60 – 70% of the body and 90% of
blood plasma is water.
The importance of water to living organisms include
i. It is a medium in which chemical reactions occur in the body.
ii. It provides natural environment for aquatic organisms.
iii. Aids seed germination and dispersal of some fruits like coconut
iv. Aids digestion of food in both plants and animals.
v. Regulation of body temperature
7. ROUGHAGE: These are indigestible fibrous materials e.g cellulose. They stimulate
bowed movement by providing bulk to the intestine content. Lack of roughage in food
results in constipation.
Foods like green vegetables, fruits and maize provide roughages.
CONCEPT OF BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet is one which contains all the food substances in the correct proportion
for the normal growth, development and maintenance of good health.
The energy value of food is expressed in kilogoules. The amount of energy available
from 1 (one) gram of a particular food substance is known as Calorific value of that food

It has been found that:

1g of carbohydrate yields 16.7KJ of energy
1g of protein yields 16.7KJ of energy
1g of fat yields 37.6KJ of energy.
IMPORTANCE OF BALANCED DIET
1. It makes the body healthy and as such resistant to diseases.
2. It enhances growth and normal development of the body.
3. It provides energy for normal activities.
4. It prevents malnutrition deficiency or diseases.
FOOD TEST

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 All classes of food contain chemical substances, which can go into chemical reactions to
produces new substances. This knowledge about the nature of food has enabled
scientists to use chemicals reactions called food tests to identify classes of food.
Test for carbohydrate
1. Fehling’s Test: Add a few drops of fehling’s solutions A and B to a starch solution in a
test tube.Place the tube containing the mixture in a boiling water tube. A brick red
precipitate is formed to indicate carbohydrate.
2. Benedict’s test: Add a few drops of benedict solution to a quantity of starch
solution in a test tube.
Boil the mixture in a water bath for about 5 minutes. A brick red precipitate indicates
the presence of carbohydrate.
3. Iodine test: Add a drop of dilute iodine solution to a spoon of boiled
rice. The appearance of a dark blue colour indicates the presence of carbohydrate.
Test for Protein
1. Biuret Test: Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution (N aOH) and a few
drops of copper(ii)tetrasulphate(vi) Solution to a portion of egg white. Shake the
mixture thoroughly after each drop. A purple colour indicates the presence of protein.
2. Millon’stest: Add a few drops of million’s reagent to a portion of egg white
and heat the mixture in a water bath. A brick red precipate indicates the presence of
protein.
Test for fats and oils (lipids)
1. Rub oil on a piece of paper.
The paper becomes translucent at the point where oil is applied. This indicates that
presence of fats and oils.
Specific Objectives: At the end of this class, you should be able to
1. Conduct a simple food test.
EVALUATION:
I. List the seven types of food substances
II. State 3 importance of balanced diet.
III. Describe the concept of a balanced diet.

TOPIC: MODE OF NUTRITION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. List the types of heterotrophic nutrition
2. Describe the feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms
NOTES
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
Organisms that depend directly or indirectly upon the autotrophs (plants) for their food
and energy supply are called HETEROTROPHS and their nutrition called
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION.
Examples of heterotrophs include all animals described as Herbivores (eating fresh
plants e.g. Cow), carnivores (eating raw animal flesh e.g. lion) and omnivores (eating all
kinds of food e.g. man, pigs, bears).

18
 TYPES OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

(A).HOLOZOIC

Holozoic organisms are animals that ingest complex organic food which is digested
and assimilated into their bodies and egest the undigested food materials as wasters.
All animals that are free living with specialized digestive tracts or systems are
holozicorganisms these includes carnivorous plants.
(b) SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION

This refers to a type of nutrition in which the organisms involved feed on dead organic
matter such as remains of plants and animals and their excretory.
Examples of saprophytes include many bacteria and fungi (e.g. Rhizopus, mushroom),
insects (termites), worms etc.
ACTIVITY. What kind of organism is found in the illustration
(c) PARASITIC NUTRITION

19
 This is a type of nutrition in which certain organisms (parasites) live on or in other
organisms (hosts) and obtain their food from the body of the living hosts.
Parasites that live on the body surfaces of the hosts area called External or
Ectoparasites. Eg leg tick, fleas, louse, bug, mosquitoes, aphids etc) while those that live
inside their host are called Internal or Endoparasites (e.g. hook worm, roundworms,
liver flukes and tapeworms.

(d) SYMBIOSIS OR MUTUALISM

Symbiosis is an association between two organisms of different species called symbionts

for their mutual benefits.
Example of symbiotic association is Rhizobium and root nodules of leguminous plant
in this association, the bacteria is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen directly into the plant
while the plant in turn provides shelter and food for the bacteria.
Activity. What organisms are found in the above illustration

(f) CARNIVOROUS (INSECTIVOROUS) PLANTS

Carnivorous plants are equipped with special devices for trapping, digesting and
absorbing nutritive compounds from the bodies of insects and other small organisms.
They possess green leaves which help them to carry out photosynthesis. They are
usually found in places with little nitrogenous salt, using insects as their source of
nitrogen.
Venus fly trap, pitcher plant, Bladderwort, and sundew are examples of carnivorous
plants.
FEEDING MECHANISMS IN HOLOZOIC ORGANISMS

20
 1) FILTER FEEDING
Filter feeders are animals that feed on suspended matter and food particles in water.
They obtain their food by sieving them from water. Examples of filter feeders are
sponges, many fish (including sharks), some birds (such as flamingos) and some species
of duck.
2) FLUID FEEDERS
Fluid feeders are organisms that feed on fluids
Fluid feeders are divided into:
i) Those that feed on blood (HAEMATOPHAGOUS)
ii) Those that feed on nectar (NECTIVORES)
iii) Those that feed on Plant sap.
Blood feeders include mosquitoes, bed bugs and fleas. They possess specialized moth
parts that penetrate skin and draw in blood from other animals, mainly mammals and
birds.
A nectivore ingests a diet made up of sugar – rich nectar produced by flowering
plants. Examples of nectivores include birds e.g. bats, humming birds, sunbirds and
insects e.g. bees, butterfly.
Plant sap feeders pierce leaves or stems with sharp needles-like mouthparts and suck
out the plant’s juices
Examples are aphids, whiteflies, spider mites, leaf hopper

EVALUATION:
i) Briefly describe the five types of heterotrophic nutrition in your own words.
(ii) Fluid feeders are grouped into 3 classes based on the type of fluids they
feed on, describe them and state two example each apart from the ones earlier stated.

TOPIC: MAMMALIAN TEETH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. List the types of mammalian teeth and describe their structure
2. State the dental formula and its adaptations of dentition to mode of nutrition
NOTES
MAMMALIAN TEETH
Structure of a Tooth

21
 The teeth are embedded half way in the gum or jaw bone. The crown projects above
the gum, while the root is completely embedded in the jaw base.
The tooth is made up of a very hard material called DENTINE which encloses the PULP
CAVITY. The pulp cavity contains blood vessels and nerves which are extremely
sensitive to heat and cold.
The crown is covered by a white hard material called ENAMEL (The enamel is the
hardest material made by animals) while the root is covered by a thin layer of bone-like
material called CEMENT the cement is covered by a membrane called PERIDONTAL
MEMBRANE
TYPES OF MAMMALIAN TEETH
1. INCISORS: These are flat, chisel-shaped and sharp teeth in front of the mouth, used for
biting off small pieces of food.
2. CANINES: They are conical in shape, long and pointed found next to incisors on both
sides. They are used for biting and tearing food (flesh).
3. PREMOLARS: They have broad surfaces with sharp points calledcusps and are found
next to the canine in the chart region. They are used for crushing and grinding of food.
4. MOLARS: They have flat surfaces with ridges and cusps. They are used for grinding and
fine chewing of food.
NOTE:
In carnivores, the last upper premolar and the first lower molar from the
CARNASSIAL TEETH which are Teeth used for tearing meat from bones and for crushing
bones.
ACTIVITY
Herbivores have no canines and between the incisors and the premolars is a gap called
the …………………

DENTITION AND DENTAL FORMULA

Dentition can be defined as the number and arrangement of the different types
of teeth found in the mouth of a mammal. Whereas
Dental formula refers to the number and types of teeth in one half of each jaw.

DENTAL FORMULAE OF SOME MAMMALS

MA DENTAL TOTA
M FORMULA L NO.
MA OF
L TEET
H IN
THE
MOU
TH
Ma 2 1 2 20
n
i2 ; C1 ; PM 2;

22
 Inf 1
ant
M1 ;
Ad 2 1 2 32
ult
i2 ; C1 ; PM 2;
3
M3 ;
Ra 2 0 3 28
bbi
i1 ; C0 ; PM 2
t
3
; M3 ;
Do 3 1 4 42
g
i3 ; C1 ; PM 4;
2
M3 ;

In writing the dental formula, incisor is represented by i. canine byC, premolar by pm

and molar by m.
ADAPTATION OF DENTITION TO MODE OF NUTRITION
Mammals dentition differ according to the mode of nutrition.
(a) Omnivores: Have dentition that accommodate a vegetable diet and a meat
diet. Their teeth include incisors for sheaving (cutting), canines for tearing, premolars
for grinding and molars for crushing.
(b) Herbivores: Have large, flat premolars and molars for grinding plant matters.
(c ) CARNIVORES: Have incisors and canine to tear off pieces small enough to
swallow meat is rich in protein and fatty acids and is easier to digest than plant material.
They have fewer molars for grinding and a shorter digestive tract with less
specialization.
ENZYMES
Enzymes are organic catalysts of protein origin produced by living cells which help to
accelerate or speed up the rate of reaction without itself being used up or changed
during the reaction process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
1. Enzymes are proteins in nature i.e. they are denature by heat, thus act best within a
narrow temperature rang.
2. Enzymes are specific in action i.e. each enzymes catalyses only are type of
reaction.
3. Enzymes are catalysts that speed up chemical reaction in the body but remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction.
4. Organic enzymes catalyse reversible reactions in with direction e.g. starch Diastase
sugar.

23
5. Enzymes are required in small quantity i.e. a small quantity of enzyme acts on a large
amount of substrate.
6. Enzymes are pH specific and act best at certain level of pH.
7. Enzymes are soluble in water medium.
8. Enzymes are retarded by inhibitors e.g. cyanide (CN) and mercury (Hg).
9. Some enzymes are inactivate and therefore require co-enzymes to activated them. For
example, trypsinogen requires enterokinase to activate it into Trypsin whilepepsinogen
requires dilute hydrochloric acid to activate it to pepsin.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
1. AMYLASES: Are enzymes that act on carbohydrates to break them down into
simple sugars e.g. glucose.
2. LIPASES: These are enzymes that act on fats and reduce them into simpler forms such as
fatty acids and glycerol.
3. PROTEASES: These are enzymes that act on proteins and break them down into simple
form as amino acids.
IMPORTANCE OF ENZYMES
1. Enzymes help in the absorption of digested food.
2. Enzymes help in the digestion of food
3. Enzymes start up essential chemical reactions our bodies need to live.
4. Enzymes are necessary for stimulating the brain.
5. They are necessary for providing cellular energy.
6. They are necessary for repairing all tissues, organs and cells.
EVALUATION:
i) State the four types of mammalian teeth.
ii) Distinguish between dentition and dental formula.
iii) Define the term enzyme.
iv) State five characteristic of enzymes.
v) Classify enzymes into groups based on the types of food they act upon.

24
 TOPIC: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1.Define ecology and state its branches
2.Briefly describe ten ecological concepts
3.Describe the components of an ecosystem
NOTES
BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
The word Ecology is derived from two Greek word “Oikes” meaning dwelling place or
home and “Logos” meaning study. Therefore, Ecology is defined as the study of the
interactions between living organisms and their environment.
Ecology is divided into two main branches:
A. Autecology: is concerned with the study of an individual organism or a single species of
organism and its environment.

B. Synecology: is concerned with the study of the inter-relationships between groups of

organisms or species of organism living together in an area for example, the study of
different organisms in a river in relation to their aquatic environment

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
1. Environment: is the sum total of all the external conditions, factors and forces that
affect an organism ie, the surrounding of an organism.
The environment consists of two parts namely abiotic (Physical or non-living) part and
biotic (living) parts.

2. Habitat: is the natural home of organism the three main kinds of habitats are aquatic
(live in water), terrestrial (live on land) and arboreal (Tree trunks and tree tops)

3. Biosphere: refers to the earth zone where life exists. The biosphere is made up of
atmosphere, hydro-sphere, and lithosphere where life can be found.

4. Atmosphere: is the enveloping layer of air surrounding the earth. It contains 78%
Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.97% rare or inert gazer

5. Lithosphere: is the solid crust of the earth. It represents 30% of the earth’s crust.

6. Hydrosphere: is the liquid or aquatic part of the earth. It cover about 70% of the earth’s
crust.

7. Niche: is the role of an organism in a habitat. Or it refers to the physical space or habitat
occupied by an organism, the functional role it plays in the community and its position
in the food web. OR. It is the functional status of the organism within the ecosystem as
a result of its structural adaptation, behavior, feeding habits and responses to other
organisms.

25
8. Population: is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living
together in a habitat at a particular time.
For example, the total number of tilapia fish in a pond constitutes the population of
tilapia fish in that habitat.
9. Biome or Biotic community: is any naturally occurring group of different organisms
living together and interacting in the same environment. A pond with populations of
fish, tadpoles, algae, water lettuce, bacteria, amoeba, mosquito larvae and pupae,
insect etc form a pond community.
The animal population is called Fauna and the plant population is called Flora.
10. Ecosystem: refers to the community of plants and animal functioning together with
their non-living environments.
Components of the ecosystem
Ecosystem consists of two main components namely biotic components and abiotic
components
a. Biotic components: Are living things i.e plants and animals. They are divided into 3
group namely
i. Producers: are autotrophs (green plants and some microorganisms) That manufacture
their own food during the process of photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
ii. Consumers: are heterotrophs (animals) which cannot manufacture their own food but
depend on plants directly or indirectly for their own food. They may be primary
secondary or tertiary consumers.
iii. Decomposers: Are saprophytic organisms (bacteria and some fungi) that feed on dead
organic matter. They cause the breakdown of the dead remains of organisms through
their feeding habit thereby causing the recycling of nutrients
iv. Abiotic components: These are non-living components of the ecosystem they include:
i. Climatic factors: like temperature, wind, humidity sunlight and rainfall
ii. Edaphic factors: Such as soil, rock, topography
iii. Inorganic substances: like water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen
iv. Organic substances: like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
v. Physiological factors: such as rocks, mountains, plateau, valleys, seas, rivers etc

Interactions in an ecosystem:
Green plants use CO2, water and chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight to produce
carbohydrate or starch. Animals feed on these carbohydrates or plants and release CO 2
for plants to take in.
Microorganisms breakdown dead plants animals to release nutrients to the soil. These
nutrients are absorbed by plants for use in food production. Plants give out oxygen
during photosynthesis which is used by animals for their normal respiration.
Evaluation:
i. Define ecology and state its branches
ii. Describe five ecological concepts you have studied
iii. Describe the components of an ecosystem.

26
 TOPIC: BIOMES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1.Describe the local biomes in Nigeria
2.Describe the six major biomes of the world
NOTES
LOCAL BIOTIC COMMUNITIES (BIOMES) IN NIGERIA
Nigeria lies between latitude 50oN and 14oN. Biomes in Nigeria are grouped into two
major zones namely forest zone and savanna (grassland)
a. FOREST ZONE: is made up of vegetation having mainly trees and consists of the
following local biotic communities

i. Mangrove swamp forest (salt and fresh water swamp): it is found in areas along the
coast of Delta, cross Rivers, Rivers, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Ogun and Lagos states.

The swamps are characterized by heavy rainfall (above 2500mm per annum) and
average monthly temperature of 260c.
The swamp forests consists of evergreen broad-leaves trees with prop stilt roots for
support and breathing roots or pneumatophores for absorbing atmospheric oxygen
because of the low level of oxygen in the water-logged area where they grow.
The most common plants in the swamps are mangrove trees, coconut, raffia palms,
ferns and shrubs. Animals in the swamps include tilapia, oysters, hermit crabs,
barnacles, snakes, monkeys and birds.
ii. Tropical rainforest: It is found in states like Edo, Delta, Ondo, Imo Abia, Lagos, Ogun,
Anambra, Rivers, Bayslsa and Akwa Ibom.
It is characterized by mean annual temperature of 2000mm. The vegetation is
predominantly evergreen, broad leaves trees occur in layers or strata. The upper layer
consists of very tall trees called Emergent e.g. Mahogany, African Walnut, iron wood,
opepe and Iroko. The trees tops form a continuous canopy that prevents sunlight from
reaching the forest floor. As a result, the vegetation on the floor is sparse and consists
of shade-loving plants like ginger, ferns and mosses. Tropical rainforest also contains
many epiphytes and climbers
b. Savanna Zone: Is made up of mainly grasses. It is divided into three savanna belts
namely southern Guinea savanna, Northern Guinea Savanna and Sabel Savanna
i. Southern Guinea Savanna: This is the largest biome in Nigeria with moderate rainfall.
The vegetation consists of very tall grasses, shrubs and scattered trees. The grasses and
trees are green and luxuriant during the rainy season but the grasses become brown
while the trees shed their leaves (deciduous) during the dry season.
It occurs in parts of Kwara, Oyo Kogi, Benue, Niger, Enugu, Taraba, Abuja and Adamawa
States. Common plant species found are locust, bean trees, shea butter and Isobelina
while animal include zebra, lion grass cutter, antelope, elephant
ii. Northern Guinea Savanna (Sudan Savanna): It is characterized by low rainfall. It consists
of short but numerous grasses, shrubs and few scattered trees with thorns and thick
barks.

27
 Common plants species found are acacia, silk cotton, date palm plants while common
animals include deer, giraffe, snakes, lions, leopards lizards etc.
In Nigeria, Northern Guinea Savanna are found in parts of Sokoto, Plateau, Kaduna,
Borno, Bauchi, Kano, Niger and Adamawa States Note: most game reserves and parks in
Nigeria are located in the Northern Guinea Savanna e.g Yankari Games reserve in
Bauchi, upper Ogun Games Reserve, Kainji lake National Parks and Old Oyo National
park.
iii. Sahel savanna: It is characterized by very low rainfall and high temperature. The
vegetation consists of short and sparse or scanty grasses, short and tough, thorny
shrubs and very few scattered short, thorny trees. Common plant species include
Acacia, Gum Arabic and date palm. The animal population is low and includes few rats,
lizards, snakes and scorpions.
In Nigeria, sahel savanna occurs mainly around Lake chad and extreme Northern states
of sokoto, Katsina, Borno, Yobe, Kebbi, Zamfara, Jigawa and Kano.
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD:
The major biomes of the world are:
1. Tropical rainforest
2. Savanna
3. Desert
4. Shrub
5. Afro-alpine
6. Swamp

1. Tropical rainforest:

Evergreen dense forest with many types of trees epiphytes and climbers. Abundant
rainfall and an average temperature of 270c throughout the year.
Major tropical rainforest of the world include- The African tropical forest, American
Tropical forest, the indo-Malayan tropical forest and the Australian Tropical forests.

28
2. Savanna/Grassland:

It covers about 20% of the total land mass of the world. It is a transitional biome
between the forest and desert. It is grouped into two namely.
a. Tropical Grassland: Abundance of grasses often with scattered trees, soil is often
infertile. Moderately dry climate with a warm dry season and a hot rainy season. It is
found in central American interior of Brazil, West Africa, part of East Africa, South East
Asia and Northern Australia.
b. Temperate Grassland: large stretches of perennial grasses growing on very fertile soil,
support herds of grazing mammals. Moderately dry climate with cold winter and
summer.
It is found in the interior continents in Asia, North America, south America, south Africa
and Australia.
3. Deserts:

29
 These are biomes associated with little or no water. The temperature is very hot during
the day and very cold at nights. The vegetation is very scanty and consist of drought-
resistant plants like cactus, date palm, grasses and shrubs.
There are two types of deserts. Hot deserts include sahara deserts (north Africa),
arabiann deserts (Arabia), irianian desert (iran), namib and Kalahari deserts (south
Africa), Great Australian Desert (Australia) and Afacama desert (South America). Cold
deserts are found in the interior of Eurasia, North America and South America
4. SHRUB:

It is found in semi-arid regions and consists of xeropyhtes (drought-resistants shrubs),

aromatic plants and dwarf tress, often fire resistant. Temperate climate with low
rainfall, where the summers are hot and dry and the winters are mild and rainy.

30
 It is found in the border land of tropical deserts and interior of continents like Brazil and
Australia.

5. AFRO-ALPINE(MOUNTAIN):

It occurs at heights above 3000m on mountains. The vegetation which is evergreen

changes as one ascends the mountain due to the changes in attitude and rainfall.
Afro-alpine occurs on the mountains of Fernado Po and Camroon, Kilomanjaro
mountain (East Africa), the Highlands of Guinea and Kenya and Mambila Plateau in
Nigeria

31
6. SWAMP:

A wet land dominated by woody vegetation. It has high temperature and high rainfall.
The dominant plants are mangroves and raffia palm. Animals commonly found include
mud skipper, crabs and tilapia fish.

EVALUATION:
i. Describe two board biomes in Nigeria
ii. Describe briefly the six major biomes of the world

TOPIC: POPULATION STUDIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1.Describe four techniques for studying population
2.Describe the four characteristics of a population
3.State six factors affecting population growth
NOTES
POPULATION STUDIED BY SAMPLING METHOD
This method of studying population involves picking at random several small areas of
the habitat and carrying out the necessary investigation.
TECHNIQUES OF STUDYING POPULATION
In a small area, plants can easily be counted and their distribution recorded. For large
areas, the following methods are used for counting.

32
1). QUADRAT METHOD

A quadrat is a rectangle or square frame made from wood, metal or plastic. It is used to
estimated the population size of small plants like herbs, shrubs, and grasses as well as
sedentary

2) TRANSECT METHOD
This involves stretching the tape marked at convenient interval across the area under
measure. This is repeated a few times, and an estimate of the number and types of
plants in the area are made.
3) CAPTURE AND RE-CAPTURE METHOD
This is method used to estimate the population size of animals. In this method,
members of a species of animal under study in a habitat are caught, mark with indelible
ink, counted and recorded as A1. This is repeated the second day, the number of
animals caught and counted is recorded as A2. The marked as A3. The population size of
that species in the area under study is given by
A1 X A2
Population size =
A3
CLASSWORK
Use the information on capture-recapture method to calculate the total number of
organisms in a habitat. First capture=200, second capture =120. Number of organisms
with mark in second capture =40. The total number of organisms is therefore is-
SOLUTION:

4) VOLUME SAMPLING METHOD:

This method is used to estimate the population size of small organisms in water e.g. the
population size of mosquito larvae in a stagnant water in tin or drum.
The water in the tin, of known volume, is stirred and 1cm 3 of water is drawn out with a
suitable pipette. The number of mosquito larvae in the 1cm3 is counted and recorded
and the water returned to the can. This process is repeated several times and the
average number of mosquito larvae in the 1cm3 is calculated.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTIC

33
 1. Population size: is the total number of individuals of the same species living together in
a habitat.
Population size is determined by census or sampling
Population size = Density x area of habitat
2. Population Density: is the average number of individuals of species per unity area of
the habitat
Population Density = Population size
Area of habitat

3. Population frequency: is the number of times a species occurs in a given area of habitat
4. Percentage cover: is the amount of space or area occupied by a species in a given
habitat.
5. Distribution: is the arrangement of a given species or population in a given habitat
FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION GROWTH
1. National and mortality: Natality is the rate of giving birth to new individuals in a
population. Mortality refers to the rate at which organisms die in a habitat.
Natality leads to increase in population size while mortality leads to a decrease in
populations size
2. Immigration and Emigration: Immigration refers to the movement of organisms into a
habitat from different habitats. Whereas, Emigration refers to the movement of
organisms away from a habitat.
Immigration leads to an increase in population size white Emigration leads to a decrease
in population size.
3. Availability and scarcity of food: Abundance of food in a habitat tends to increase the
population because organisms will feed and reproducer rapidly. On the other hand,
scarcity of food tends to decrease the population due to reduction in the rate of
reproduction.
4. Natural Disaster: Natural disaster like fire, flood, drought, earth quakes lead to a
decrease in population size.
5. Seasonal Climatic changes: When organisms die or migrate out of a habitat during
unfavorable climatic conditions, the population size reduces. Organization on the other
hand migrate into a habitat where the climatic condition are favourable, thus increasing
the population size.
6. Breeding period: organization that have selected habitats for breeding move out on
mass from their natural habitats to breeding places which leads to a decrease in the
population of the breeding habitat.

Evaluation
i. Describe one technique of studying population
ii. Enumerate five characteristics of a population
iii. Describe five factors affecting population growth.

34