WEEK ONE & TWO

TISSUE AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM

Contents
• Introduction
• Forms of Skeleton
• Types of Skeleton
• Functions of Skeleton
• Support in Vertebrates
• Axial and Appendicular Skeleton
• Supporting Tissues in Plants

INTRODUCTION
To carry out life processes, all organisms (plants and animals)
need tissues. Tissues are group of similar cells that carry out
specific functions. Skeleton is the framework of the body which
provides support, shape and protection to the soft tissues and
organs in animals. It forms the central core of human body and it
is covered by muscles and blood vessels and skin.

FORMS OF SKELETAL MATERIALS

There are 3 forms of skeletal materials found in animals.These
are
1. Chitin
2. Cartilage
3. Bones

CHITIN
It is a tough non-living material present in arthropods
(invertebrates). It acts as a hard outer covering to the animal and
is made up of series of plates covering or surrounding
organisms. Chitin is very tough, light and flexible. However, it
can be strengthened by impregnation with ‘tanned’ proteins and
particularly in the aquatic crustaceans like crabs, by calcium
carbonate.

CARTILAGE
This is a tissue present in skeleton of complex vertebrates.
Cartilage consists of a hard matrix penetrated by numerous
connective tissue fibres. The matrix is secreted by living cells
called chondroblasts. These later become enclosed in spaces
(lacunae) scattered throughout the matrix. In this condition the
cells are termed chondrocytes. It acts as a shock absorber in
between bones during movement because it is tough and flexible
with a great tensile strength. It is found predominantly in
mammals and cartilaginous fishes e.g. shark.
EVALUATION
1. What is skeleton?
2. (a) State two main components of skeleton. (b)
Differentiate between cartilage and chitin.

TYPES OF CARTILAGE
Cartilages are of three main types in mammals and they are

HYALINE CARTILAGE
This contains a dense meshwork is the most common type and
can be found on surface of moveable joint, trachea and bronchi
(for ease of respiration) and also in protruding parts of the nose.

WHITE FIBROUS CARTILAGE

Tougher than the hyaline cartilage and can be found in the
intervertebral disc of vertebral column.

YELLOW ELASTIC CARTILAGE

Found in the external ear (pinna) and epiglottis (*cartilaginous
flap covering the trachea active during food swallowing).

BONE
This is the major component of skeletal system and it consist of
living cells (osteocytes), protein fibers (collagen), and minerals
such as calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. These
minerals (the non- living constituent) makes up two-third of a
mass of bone .Hence, bone is strong and very rigid unlike
cartilage .Bones are highly vascularised.

The skeleton of a young vertebrate embryo is made up of

cartilage. As the embryo grows bone cells (osteocyte) replaces
cartilage cells.Hence, the cartilage tissue becomes hardened into
bone through the addition of minerals in a process called
OSSIFICATION

Differences Between Bones and Cartilage

Bone Cartilage
1 Bones produce red and white blood cells Cartilages do not
2 Made up of both living cells and dead Made up of mainly living cells.
cells
3 Bones are often rigid Cartilage are often flexible
4 They are made up mainly of mineral Mineral substance are absent
substance such as calcium
5 Can never be replaced by cartilage Can be replaced by bones
6 Flexible only in young ones Cartilage both in young ones and adult is
flexible.

EVALUATION
 1. With examples differentiate between hyaline and elastic
cartilage.
2. Distinguish between bone and cartilage.

TYPES OF SKELETON
The three main types of skeleton in animals are
1. Hydrostatic skeleton: This is the type present in soft
bodied animals e.g. earthworm, sea anemones etc. Such
animal use pressure to support itself. They also have a
muscular body wall which is filled with fluid. The fluid
presses against the muscular wall causing them to contract
and exerting force against the fluid.

2. Exoskeleton: This is the outer skeleton present in

arthropods. It is secreted by the cells covering the body of
the animals and the main component is chitin (non
livingsubstance). Exoskeleton also supports animals against
gravity and enables them to move about. Animals with
these skeleton types periodically shed the old skeleton;
grow rapidly in size when the new exoskeleton is still soft
and extensible. The shedding process is called
MOULTING or ECDYSIS.

3. Endoskeleton:This is an internal skeleton present in all

vertebrates. Endoskeleton of vertebrates are composed
mainly of bones and the bones grow steadily as the animal
grows (hence no need for moulting). Bones of many sizes
and shapes make up the endoskeleton of vertebrates. These
bones are attached together as moveable joints by tough
flexible fibers called ligaments hence the skeleton is
flexible. Muscles are also attached to the bones usually
bytendons to provide posture and bring about body
movement.

FUNCTION OF SKELETON
➢ It supports the body of organisms.
➢ Skeleton acts as the framework of the body
➢ Protection of delicate organs e.g. heart, brain, etc.
➢ Used for locomotion through the limbs in action.
➢ Important component of respiration e.g. breathing involve
active movement of the ribs.
➢ Production of blood via bone marrows.
EVALUATION
1. Mention the three types of skeleton.
2. Differentiate between internal and external skeleton.

SUPPORT IN VERTEBRATES
The skeleton of vertebrate such as fish, frog, lizard, bird and
man consist of bones and cartilages. It can be classified into two.
1. AXIAL SKELETON- which consists of the skull, ribs,
sternum and the vertebral column.
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON - it is made up of limb
girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdles), and the limbs (the fore
and hind limbs).

AXIAL SKELETON
The Skull
The Skull is made up of flat bones joined together by suture
joint which has three parts: Cranium (brain-box), facial
skeleton and the jaws; including maxilla (upper) and
mandible.

Functions
➢ It protects the brain.
➢ Also protects the olfactory organ, eyes, middle and inner
ear.
➢ Gives shape to the head.
➢ Bears the teeth.
The vertebral column
It forms the back bone, protecting the spinal cord. It is made
up of 5 groups of bones called the vertebrate each of which is
built on similar basic pattern. The vertebrate are held together
with strong ligament and comprehensible cartilage pads called
into intervertibratal disc.

Types of Vertebrae and Location

Vertebrae Location Rat Rabbit Cat Cow Humans
Cervical Neck 7 7 7 7 7
Thoracic Chest 13 12-13 13 13 12
Lumber Upper trunk 6 6-7 7 6 5
Sacral Lower trunk 4 4 3 5 5
Caudal T]ail 30 16 18-25 18-20 4

A TYPICAL VERTIBRA
A typical vertebra has the following structural features
➢ Neural canal which is for the passage of the spinal cord.
➢ Neural spine which projects upward and backward for the attachment of muscle.
➢ Transverse processes for the attachment of muscles and ligaments.
➢ Centrum; a solid bony pieces below the neural canal
➢ Zygapophyses are the particular surfaces for joining together of successive
vertebrate.
Thiscould be pre-zygapophysis (facing inward and upwards) or
post-zygapophysis (facing outward and downwards

Cervical Vertebrae
The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas while the second is
called the axis.
The Atlas It has a large neural canal, flat and broad transverse
processes, short neural spine which could be absent at times. It
also has a vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood vessels.
Centrum is absent.

EVALUATION
1. Give two classes of skeleton.
2. List types of vertebrae.

Function of Atlas
Permits the nodding of the head.

The Axis
It has a broad and flat Centrum, a large and flat neural spine,
reduce transverse processes and a vertebrarterial canal. It
articulates with the atlas through odontoid process

Functions
➢ It permits the turning or twisting of the head.
 ➢ Forms pivot joint with the atlas.
Thoracic Vertebra
Have a long and prominent neural spine, a pair of short
transverse processes, a large neural
canal and neural arc and large cylindrical centrums .They also
have particular surfaces for attachment of the ribs.

Function
➢ Aids attachment of ribs
➢ Assist in breathing
➢ Attachment of muscles at the shoulder and back

Lumbar Vertebrae
Each has large and flat transverse processes, broad and flat
neural spine, large and thick centrums and well developed
zygapophyses.It has extra paired projections namely
1. anapophysis
2. metapophysis

Functions of Lumbar
➢ It provides attachment for abdominal muscles
➢ It bears considerable weight of the body

Sacral Vertebrae
This fuse together to form a singular bony mass called sacrum.
Each sacral vertebrate has a narrow neural canal, reduced neural
spine and large centrums. The first differs from the remaining
four by
1. Having a pair of transverse processes which is large and
wing-like while the others are attached to the muscles of
the back.
2. Presence of a small neural canal which generally becomes
narrower in the lower four vertebrae.

FUNCTION
➢ Joins the pelvic girdle to provide support,rigidity and strength.

Caudal vertebrae
These are joined together to form a singular bony mass called
coccyx. Each has no neural spine, no neural canal and no
transverse process. It appears as a solid rectangular mass of bone

Functions
➢ Supports the tail
➢ Provides attachment for tail muscle
Evaluation
1. List the structural features of a typical vertebrate
2. Using the location, structural features and functions,
differentiate between atlas and axis.

The Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral girdle: this is found around the shoulder in man and it
consists of two halves which are held
by muscles. Each halve is made up of 3three bones
❖ Scapula
❖ Clavicle
❖ Coracoids
The scapula and coracoids are fixed together as the scapula is
flat and triangular with a hollow called GLENOID CAVITY at
its tip. This cavity articulates or joins with the head of humerus
to form the shoulder joint.The clavicle is a small rod of bone
attached to a ligament joining the sternum to the scapula

Functions
➢ The pectoral girdle gives attachment to muscles and ligaments.
➢ It provides firm support to the fore limbs.

Pelvic girdle: this is found around the waist in man and it

consists of two halves which are joined to each other ventrally
and to the sacrum dorsally. Each halve of the pelvic girdle is
made up of 3threebones. They are
▪ Illium
▪ Ischium
▪ Pubis
These three bones form a depression (on their outer surface)
called ACETABULUM which articulates with the head of the
femur to form the hip joint.

Evaluation
1. describe the limb girdle found in the shoulder region of the
human body
2. Differentiate between pectoral and pelvic girdle.

LIMBS
The limbs include the fore (upper) and the hind (lower) limbs. In
most vertebrates, both limbs have the same basic plan i.e. each
limb has a long bone followed by a pair of two long bones next
to this is a set of small bones terminating with five digits.

The fore limbs- This is made up of an upper arm bone called

humerus which joins with two other long bones at its lower end
(radius and ulna) to form the elbow joints. Radius and ulna (the
ulna is longer) are the bones of the fore arm, next are the wrist
bones called carpals which are a small bones. These are
followed by the digit bones called metacarpals which terminate
in the phalanges (finger bones). In man, each digit has three
phalanges except the thumb which has two phalanges.

The hind limbs-This is made up of thigh bones called femur

(which is the largest and longest bone in the body). Its round
upper end is the end that terminates at two rounded projections
called condyles which forms the knee joint together with tibia.
A small flat bone called patella is found in front of the knee
joint. Next to the femur are tibia and fibula-Tibia is longer and
larger. These are followed by bones of the ankle called tarsals.
The lower limb terminates as at the digit bone metatarsals and
each digit is made up of three phalanges

Evaluation
1. on what formation plan are the upper and lower limb based
2. Differentiate between the long bones of the arm and that of
the thigh.

The ribs
These are long semi circular rods which connects the thoracic
vertebrates to the sternum. They are found in the chest region of
the body. In man, they are 12 pairs

Function
➢ They form a cage protecting the lungs and the heart
➢ They assist in breathing.

A TYPICAL RIB
A typical rib has a head, a neck and a body.The first sevenribs
are connected directly to the sternum through coastal cartilages.
They are therefore called true ribs. The next five are called
false ribs. The eighth to tenth ribs have a common articulation
to the sternum, each one attached to the coastal cartilage to the
one above .The eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are called
floatingribs because they have no connection to the sternum.
Types of Supporting Tissues in plants
Plants have various types of supporting tissues that make them up. Like animals, these tissues
help them to stand some meters above the ground without falling. They have definite shape,
strength, rigidity and to resists external force like wind and water.
Tissues that give support to plant are:

1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
 3. Sclerenchyma
4. Xylem
1. Parenchyma: Made up of living cells which are elongated and
thickened at the corners.
• Tissues made up of living unspecialized plant cells that are roughly spherical in shape
• They are composed of mainly cellulose and a large vacuole containing cell sap
• It gives rigidity to plants as a result of tightly packed cells.
• Other tissues are derived from parenchyma.
• They possess thin wall and are found in the cortex of stems, leaf mesophylls, and flesh of
fruits.

2. Collenchyma: Madeup of living cells which are elongated and

thickened at the corners.
• Consist of living cells that are thickened at the corners.
• Collenchyma cells are found beneath the epidermis in stems and petioles and around the
veins in dicot leaves.
• Usually polygonal elongated cells with tapering ends.
• It enable flexibility and resilience.
• Does not support secondary growth in plant.

3. Sclerenchyma: They
are made up of thick cells containing
cellulose and lignin. The tissues are rich in fibers.
• Thisis made up of cells impregnated with lignin that gives the plant hardness, rigidity and
mechanical support.
• They are made up of dead cells (fibres and sclereids/stone cells)
• Fibres are made up of narrow polygonal elongated cells.
• It has thick secondary walls.

4. Xylem of Wood Tissue: Xylem tissues are found in vascular tissues

of stems,roots and leaves
• It is the tissue that conducts water and mineral from the soil to the plant and vessels.
• Xylem is made up of (a) fibres (b) vessels (c) tracheids and (d) parenchyma
• Has strengthening function that undergo secondary growth.

Phloem Tissues
Also located in the vascular bundles of all plants in their roots,
stems and leaves

Functions
➢ Conduction of manufactured food from site of production to site of consumption and
storage.
➢ Assist to provide support to the entire plant.
 Plant Tissues
Stems differ between gymnosperms (conifers and related plants) and angiosperms (flowering
plants) and between the two divisions of angiosperms—monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
Common to all of them, though, are basic tissue types: vascular tissue (xylem and phloem),
which conducts water and nutrients to the cells of the plant; ground tissue, called pith at the
center of the stem, which surrounds the vascular tissue; and dermal tissue, a protective layer.

Nectarine Tree
The nectarine tree is a variety of peach tree that produces a smooth-skinned fruit called a
nectarine. The color and seed of the fruit are very similar to that of the peach. Nectarine seeds
have been known to grow trees that bear peaches and peach trees have been known to bear
nectarines. Commercial farming of nectarines is extensive in California.

Functions of Supporting Tissues in Plants

The following are supporting tissues in plants:

1. It gives definite shape to the plant.

2. Epidermis, the outmost skin determines the structure of the plant and how it looks.
3. Strength: Collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, xylem vessles and turgid parenchyma
cells have been identified as tissues that strengthen the plants; walls are thickened to
provide strength to plant.

4. Rigidity; Supporting tissues gives rigidity that plant needs to withstand blows from
outside.

5. Resilience and Flexibility; By the help of supporting tissues, plant sway in the direction
of the wind, breezes, and water without being moved.
EVALUATION

1. List four plant tissues and discuss any one of your choice.
 2. Mention three cells of the xylem tissue
3. State three functions supporting tissues in plants
4. Describe the bone connecting the thoracic vertebra to the sternum.
5. Classify the twelve types of ribs.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Describe the structural features of a typical vertebra
2. Define ossification.
3. What is moulting?
4. State four reasons for presence of supporting tissues in
plant
5. List supporting tissues found in plant and state their
functions.
Reading Assignment
College Biology by IdodoUmeh. Chapter14, page 251-259

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
SECTION A
1. …………. is a non living skeletal material
A. chondroblasts B. osteocyte C. elastic cartilage D. chitin
2. The articulating surface for joining together successive vertebrates is called
A. neural spine B. zygapophyses C. transverse processes D. neural canal
3. The canal for the passage of blood vessels in vertebrae is called
A. neural canal B. cervical canal C. vertebraterial canal D. zygaphosis
4. Endo- skeleton is present in the following animals except
A. dog B. snake C. shark D. lizard
5. The most abundant supporting tissue in plants is
A. sclerenchyma B. parenchyma C. xylem D. phloem

SECTION B
1. (a) What is ecdysis? (b) Mention two animals in which it occurs
2. Differentiate between (a) Bone and cartilage (b) Atlas and axis vertebrae

Week 3 to 4

BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

CONTENT

1. Meaning of Ecology
2. Ecological Concepts
3. Components of an Ecosystem
4. Local Biotic Communities or Biomes

Meaning of Ecology
Ecology is the study of living organisms in relation to their environment.
The study deals with the relationship of living organisms with one another and with the
environment in which they live. Ecology measures factors affecting the environment; it studies
the distribution of living organisms and how they depend on one another and their non-living
environment for their survival.
Ecology is divided into two
(i) Autecology which is the study of a single individual organism or a single species of organism
and their environment. E.g. the study of Tilapia fish in a particular stream.
(ii) Synecology which is the study of inter–relationships between groups of organisms or species
of organisms living together in an area. E.g. the study of all organisms in a particular stream in
relation to their environment.

Ecological Concepts
1. Environment: This refers to all the factors in an organism’s surroundings, living or non-
living. The factors include the place where the organism lives and the physical conditions in the
place, the food, water and air it takes in, the animals that prey on it and the disease that affect it.
2. Habitat: This is the place where an organism lives. It is the place that is suitable to the
organism’s way of life e.g. the habitat of fish is water.
Examples of Habitat
Examples of habitats include:
(i) Aquatic habitats e.g. puddles, streams, ponds, seas, oceans.
(ii) Terrestrial habitats e.g. savanna, rain, forest, desert, etc.
(iii) Arboreal habitat i.e. tree tops and tree trunks.
3. Ecological Niche: This is the functional role and the space/specific portion of habitat
occupied by a particular organism or species. E.g. a caterpillar and an aphid may live on the
same plant but occupy different positions. The caterpillar lives on the leaves and feeds on them
while the aphid lives on the young shoot stem and sucks sap from it. The functional role includes
the organism’s behaviour, its feeding habits and breeding habits i.e. the activities carried out
while occupying the spaces in the habitat.
4. Population: This is the total number of all organisms of the same species or kinds, living
together in a given area/habitat. E.g. the total number of tilapia fish in a pond constitutes the
population of Tilapia fish in that habitat.
5. Community: This is made up of all the populations of living organisms that exist together
in a habitat. It is any natural occurring group of different organisms living together and
interacting in the same habitat. E.g. the community on a rotting log will include insects like
termites, ants, lizards, small birds and decomposers such as bacteria and fungi.
6. Biosphere: This refers to all parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere where
life can be found. It is the largest and highest level of biological organization and is made up of
various ecosystems.
7. Ecosystem: This is self-supporting unit that is made up of a living part and a non-living part.
It is a community of plants and animals interacting with themselves and with the non-living
factors in their environment.
EVALUATION

1. Define ecology
2. Mention four ecological concepts and explain them
Components of an Ecosystem
The living part of the ecosystem is called its biotic component while the non-living parts are
called the biotic component.
(a) Biotic component: This includes all living things/organisms in an environment. It is also
called the biotic community. It is made up of;
(i) Food producer’s e.g. autotrophs (green plants), chemosynthetic bacteria and protophyta.
(ii) Food consumer’s i.e. heterotrophs such as animals, protozoa and some bacteria.
(iii) Decomposer’s i.e. saprophytes like fungi and some bacteria.

(b) Abiotic component: This consists of abiotic resources and abiotic conditions
Abiotic resources: These are what organisms need so as to stay alive. E.g. sunlight (a source of
energy) and inorganic nutrients like water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, phosphorus etc.
Abiotic conditions: These are those factors that determine the kind of organisms that are found
in a particular ecosystem. These factors affect the behaviour, growth and breeding patterns of
organisms, they include;
(i) Climatic factors such as temperature, wind, light intensity, humidity, water currents,
turbidity, rainfall, e.t.c.
(ii) Edaphic factors such as soils, rocks, topography, etc.
Other factors include air, water, storms, etc.

Characteristics of an Ecosystem
The following are the characteristics of an ecosystem:
(i) There is a flow of energy
(ii) There is recycling of inorganic nutrients.
The major interaction between the biotic and abiotic components involves feeding. Food
producers like plants, trap sun-light energy and nutrients (e.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen) etc. from
the abiotic environment to make food. The energy and nutrients in the food is passed on to
heterotrophs (consumers) such as animals which feed on plants or on one another. The animals
and plants eventually die and decomposers feed on them thereby obtaining their own energy.
However in the process, the decomposers release the nutrients in the animals and plants back into
the abiotic environment (i.e. the soil). These nutrients can be re-used again by the food
producer’s. Plants also give out oxygen during photosynthesis and this is used by animals for
respiration. Animals give off carbon dioxide during respiration which plants take up.
NB: As the energy in food is passed from one organism to another it eventually escapes into the
environment and cannot be re-used.
EVALUATION

1. Define (a) biotic factor (b) abiotic factor

2. Give two examples each of the concepts defined above
3. What characteristics make an ecosystem a self- supporting unit.

Biomes
Biomes are large natural terrestrial (land) ecosystems. It is the largest community of organisms
interacting with the non-living environment. Biomes are identified by their vegetation. Examples
include forest, desert, savannas, etc. The type of vegetation is largely determined by climatic
factors especially rainfall and temperature, as such, regions in the world which have similar
climates also have similar biomes.
Local Biomes in Nigeria
This can be grouped into two major zones

1. The forest zone

2. Savanna zone
1. The forest zone: This is made up of vegetations having mainly trees, they include:
(a) Mangrove swamp: A forest of tall woody trees with aerial roots. The rainfall is high and the
soil is water logged throughout the year. Plants here include the white and red mangroves, raffia
palms and coconut.
Mangrove swamps are found in states like the Delta, Cross River, Bayelsa etc. The climate is hot
and wet throughout the year. Rainfall is heavy usually above 2500mm and the average monthly
temperature is around 26ºc for most months of the year.
(b) Tropical Rainforest: Consists of tall trees with buttress roots, with evergreen and broad
leaves. The trees exist in canopies i.e. different layers, and prevent sunlight from reaching the
forest floor, thus the vegetation on the forest floor is sparse. Epiphytes and climbers are common
features in the trees.
The climate is hot and wet throughout the year. The mean annual temperature is 27ºc while the
mean total annual rainfall is 2000mm. These forests are found in states like Oyo, Edo, Cross
River, Ogun, Ondo, Imo and Rivers State.
2. Savanna zone: This is made up mainly of grasses and includes;
(a) Southern Guinea Savanna: Consists mainly of tall grasses, with a few tall trees with broad
leaves. The trees are scattered and deciduous. Examples include the locust beans trees, shear-
butter and isobelina.
It has a moderate rainfall of between 100-150cm per annum. They are located in Enugu, Kogi,
Benue, Kwara, Osun, Oyo, Ebonyi, and Ekiti States.
(b) Northern Guinea Savanna (Sudan Savanna): This has short but numerous grasses. The
trees are scattered, short and deciduous. The trees have thorns while others have thick barks. The
trees include acacia, date palm, baobab and silk cotton plants.
The rainfall is low, about 50-100cm per annum. They may be found in states like plateau,
Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Taraba, Adamawa and Kano.
(c) Sahel Savanna: It has very short and scanty grasses. There are short and tough shrubs or
trees. The plants are mainly drought resistant and scattered examples include acacia, gum arabic
and date palm.
The temperature is very high and rainfall is very low, below 50cm per annum. It may be found in
States like Bornu, Katsina, Sokoto, Yobe, Kebbi, Zamfara, Kano and Jigawa.

EVALUATION

1. What is a biome and how can it be identified?

2. Mention the two major biomes in Nigeria and the types.
ASSIGNMENT
Make a drawing of the map of Nigeria and outline the local biomes.
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL
Make a local visit to any nearby vegetation and make a report of your observations.

BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

CONTENT

1. Major Biomes of the World

2. Population Studies by Sampling Method
3. Ecological Factors
4. Simple Measurement of Ecological Factors
5. Relationship between Soil Types and Water Holding Effects of Soil on Vegetation
6. Practical Guides on Soil

Major Biomes of the World

Zones of different biomes occur from the equator to the arctic and to the antarctic due to
differences in climate. In the equatorial and tropical areas where temperature and rainfall are
high all year round, tropical forests occur while in the cold arctic regions, treeless plains called
tundra are found.
Climates change with distance from the equator and also with height above sea level, as such
zones of different biomes occur from the equator to the poles and on a mountain side.
Examples of Major Biomes of the World
1. Tropical rain forests: These consist of dense forests with many types of trees, epiphytes and
climbers. Rainfall is abundant throughout the year and an average temperature of 27ºc is
recorded throughout the year. Located around the equator e.g. around coasts of West Africa,
Amazon basin of South Africa, etc.
2. Temperate forests: These consist of broad-leaved deciduous trees which shed their leaves
during winter. A lot of different plants grow at many levels from the ground as the trees are not
densely packed as in the tropical forest. It has a moderately wet climate and a dry or cold season.
Examples are found in North America, lowlands of North – West Europe (e.g. France), and
Britain.
3. Coniferous forest: These consist of needle leaved, evergreen conifers e.g. pines, fires and
spruces. Only a few types of tree are found in these forests. Other plants such as shrubs, ferns
and mosses are also present. The temperature is cool and rainfall is light. There is also light
snow. Examples are found in Eurasia and North America.
4. Temperate shrubland: Consist of drought-resistant shrubs, aromatic plants and dwarf trees.
The temperature is very high (over 30ºc), rainfall is low, the summers are hot and dry and the
winters are mild and rainy. Examples are found in North-Eastern Brazil, Australia, and close to
the Sahara in West Africa.
5. Savanna: These are tropical grasslands with few scattered trees. It has a moderately dry
climate, a warm dry season and a hot rainy season. Examples are found in Central America,
Interior of Brazil, West Africa, East Africa, and South-East Asia.
6. Temperate grassland: Consist of large stretches of perennial grasses growing on very fertile
soil. Examples are the steppes, prairies, plains, pampas and veld. The climate is moderately dry
with a cold winter and hot summer. Examples are Found in the interior continents in Asia, North
America, South America, (Argentina), South Africa and Australia.
7. Desert: Consist of very sparse vegetation which are mainly succulent perennials with deep
root systems and annuals which exist mainly as seeds, germinate and grow rapidly, flower and
produce seeds during brief periods of rain. Rainfall is very low and temperature is very high. E.g.
Sahara desert (North Africa), Arabian Desert (Arabia), etc.
8. Tundra: Consists of treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs, grasses,
sedges, lichen and moss. The climate is cold with long icy winters and very short summers. The
average temperature is 10ºc. Examples are the coastal strip of Greenland, Northern Canada and
Alaska, Arctic seaboard of Eurasia.
9. Mountain vegetation: Consist of evergreen rain forest occurring on the slopes of mountains.
The forests are less luxuriant than the tropical rain forest. The Afro-alpine vegetation occurs at
height above 3000m on mountains. The vegetation consist mainly of heaths, grasses and sedges.
In Africa it is found in Cameroon mountain, Kenya highland and Kilimanjaro mountain.
Temperature decrease with altitude. Rainfall is heavy on the windward side and less on the
leeward side of the mountains.

EVALUATION

1. List six biomes of the world

2. Briefly discuss two biomes of the world.

Population Studies
A population is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living together in a
given area at a particular time. In any ecosystem, the community is made up of many populations
of different species.
To study a habitat’s populations, the following are usually investigated.

1. The type of organisms in the habitat: This involves listing all the different types of
populations found in that particular habitat. This helps to determine the relationships that
exist between the different organisms in the habitat.

2. The dominant species: This refers to the species of organisms in a community which
exert a great influence on the habitat and on the other populations. Dominance may be
expressed in terms of their number, size, the portion of space occupied and contribution
to the energy flow of the habitat.

3. The characteristics of the population: This refers to;

(a) Population size: The total number of individuals of the same species in the habitat (the total
numbers of individuals in a population). A large population stands a better chance of surviving
unfavourable conditions such as fires, diseases, harsh climate changes, while a small population
can be easily wiped out. A large population also has the advantage of increasing its vigour
through breeding which invariably increases its ability to withstand adverse conditions.
(b) Population density: This is defined as the number of individual organisms per unit area or
volume of the habitat.

Mathematically represented as;

Population density=Total population or Population sizeArea of habitat

Example: If an area of land of 100m² has an elephant grass population of 1000 plants, the density
of elephant grasses will be;
Total number of individualsTotal area=1000/100m2 elephant grasses=10∅∅/1∅∅m2 elephant
grasses=10 elephant grasses/m2
Population density can be used to estimate the total number of individuals of a population i.e.
population size.
(c) Population frequency: This refers to how often the species occurs at different sites in its
habitat. It is recorded as the number of times the organism is sited (seen).
(d) Population growth rate: This refers to the total and final effect of birthrate and death rate of
organisms in the habitat.
(e) Percentage cover: This is the area of ground or space covered (or occupied) by a given
species its habitat. It is expressed in percentage.
(f) Distribution: This refers to the way in which individuals of a particular population are
arranged in a given habitat. The individuals may live in clumps, they may be evenly spaced or
randomly spaced.
Example: If the western half of the habitat contained ¾ of the elephant grasses, then,
Density =3/4×1000=75Ø5Ø=15 grasses/m^2
Methods of Studying Populations
To conduct population studies the following procedure is used;

1. Choose the habitat to be studied

2. Choose a sampling method
3. Identify the species in the habitat
4. Collect, count and record the different types of organisms present.
5. Repeat the population studies at different periods.
The following methods can be used to study specific populations:
1. Collection of plants: In a small area plants are easy to count and their distribution can be
recorded on a map or scale diagram of the area, however for larger areas quadrats or transects are
used.
(a) Quadrat Sampling: A quadrat is made of a square or rectangular piece of wire, plastic, wood
or metal frame with predetermined area. E.g. the area of a quadrat may be 25cm². A quadrat is
used to sample the number of plant species in a habitat. It is not suitable for sampling animals
because they move around so much. A quadrat is used by throwing it over the shoulder at
random several times and on each landing, the area covered/enclosed by it is observed. The type
of plant species and their number within the quadrat are recorded. From the results, the average
number of plant per m² is calculated. If the area of the habitat is known, the total number of
plants it contains can be estimated.
Permanent quadrats, with mapping grids attached can be made to study seasonal variations of
plants. These quadrats are sturdier, larger and remain permanently fixed on a marked area.
(b) Transect method: A marked tape is used in this method. The tape is marked at convenient
intervals and then stretched across the area to be studied. The plants encountered at the interval
marks are counted and recorded. This procedure is repeated a few times. In this way, a fairly
accurate estimate of the number and types of plants in the habitat are obtained. Plants are usually
collected in plastic bags and then pressed and dried in a plant press. The dried plants are mounted
on stiff paper, fixed in position with masking tape/cellotape and labeled with both the scientific
and common names.
2. Collection of Animals: Animals are more difficult to collect than plants; however their
presence can be inferred by looking for signs of their presence such as nests, eggs, feaces, tracks,
feathers, etc and by studying the vegetation with which they are associated. To study animals
different types of nets and traps are used in capturing them. The following methods can be used.
(a) Capture – Recapture method: In this method animals of one type in a particular area are
caught, counted and marked with ink and released. Their number is recorded as A1. The
following day another set is captured and the number recorded as A2.This second batch may
include animals which had been caught and marked the previous day, their number is recorded as
A3. The population of animals present in the area is found using the formula;
Population in area A1×A2A3
This method is based on the assumptions that;

1. Individuals do not move out of or into the ecosystem

2. The marked individuals are randomly distributed in the population.
3. The marked individuals are a random sample.
4. The initial capture and markings do not influence recapture.
5. That number of the marks have worn off during the interval between the two catches.
NB: The results obtained by this method are approximations.
(b) Collection of soil animals with quadrats: The soil animals in an area can be studied by
collecting samples of soil from several sites chosen by tossing a quadrat randomly. A 25%
sodium chloride solution is added to each soil sample and the animals are collected as they float
in the solution.
For earthworms, the sites chosen with the quadrat are irrigated with 25% formalin solution and
the earthworms are collected as they move to the surface of the soil.
EVALUATION
1. What are the major investigations carried out when studying a habitat?
2. A pond with an area of 200m² has a duckweed population of 1,500 plants. Find
(a) The population density
(b) If the western half of the habitat contained ¾ of the duckweed. What is the density of the
eastern half?
3. Explain what a Tullgren’s funnel is and what it is used for.
4. Make a list of traps used for capturing animals for study and describe how captured animals
are kept or preserved.

Factors That Affect Populations

Populations in a habitat may show changes in size or distribution. These changes may be due to;

1. Natality (birth rate): Increase in birth rates especially during breeding periods, lead to
increase in population size while a decrease in birth rate results in a decrease in the
population.

2. Mortality (death rate): This refers to the rate at which organisms die. An increase in
death rate leads to a decrease in the population and vice versa.

3. Immigration: This is the movement of organisms from different habitats into a particular
habitat. This increases the population size of the habitat being moved into.

4. Emigration: It is the movement of organisms out of a habitat ant it leads to a decrease in

the population. Emigration may be caused by scarcity of food, unfavourable conditions,
seasonal climate changes or breeding purposes.

5. Availability of food: An abundance of food in a habitat tends to lead to an increase in the

population of organisms due to increase in birth rate (reproduction) and influx of
organism from other areas and vice versa.

6. Seasonal climate changes: Adverse climate changes may lead to a decrease in number
of organisms due to death or emigration. Favourable conditions leads to an increase in
population.

7. Natural disasters e.g. fire; flood, drought etc. may lead to a decrease in population due
to death and emigration.
(others include availability of water, availability of space, war)

Ecological Factors
These are factors in the environment that influence life in the ecosystem. These factors affect the
living organisms or cause changes in the habitat (aquatic or terrestrial).
These factors are grouped into two

1. Biotic factors
2. Abiotic factors
1. Biotic factors
The biotic factors are those concerned with the effects of plants and animals on one another in a
given habitat e.g. competition, predation parasitism, etc.
2. Abiotic factors
Abiotic factors include climate topographic (or physiographic) and edaphic (soil factors).
Variations in the ecological factors bring about changes in the habitat. Abiotic factors also
determine the type of biotic community found in a habitat.
Ecological Factors Affecting Terrestrial Habitats
1. Topographic Factors: These factors are associated with the structure of the habitats e.g.
effects of hilts, valleys, plains mountains and rivers. These factors bring about variation in the
vegetation and types of animals in an area.
Topographic factors include:
(a) Altitude (elevation): This refers to height of the land above sea level. This affects the growth
of plants and the level of erosion in an area. As altitude increases, temperature falls by
approximately 1ºc per 150metres, as a result of this, mountain tops are generally cold places cold
air causes clouds to condense and fall as rain, thus the annual rainfall on mountains is high
especially on the windward side. As one ascends a mountain, the air become less dense, there is
less of it to filter the sun’s rays, so organisms at the top of mountains are exposed to intense solar
radiation.
(b) Slope: Water flows faster on a steep slope than on a gentle slope as such, run-off is greater
and less water sinks into the soil on steep slopes. Also, erosion tends to be more. Gentle slopes
are more favourable to plant growth.
(c) Exposure: This refers to the extent to which living things are not protected from climatic
factors such as rainfall, sunshine and wind. Exposure is usually high on mountains and low
within a forest. Winds tend to be stronger in exposed habitats and relative humidity is lower than
in sheltered habitats. Low degree of exposure ensures the availability of nutrients to plants.
2. Edaphic Factors: These are factors related to the nature of soil particles. The word edaptic
refers to the influence of soils on plants and animals. Differences in the soil of a locality usually
produce difference in vegetation since plants are dependent on the soil and the type of plants
determine the type of animals that will be found in the habitat. Edaphic factors include:
(a) Soil Types: this could be sand, loam or clay. The type of soil determines the fertility of the
soil, its porosity and water retaining capacity.
(b) Soil Texture: The amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil affects its water retaining capacity.
Soil texture refers to the degree of fineness or coarseness of soil particles. It also affects leaching
and erosion.
(c) Soil structure: This refers to the arrangement of the various soil particles in soil. This affects
the level of soil aeration and percolation and the type and level of soil organisms in the soil.
(d) Soil pH: The pH of soil also affects the type of plants in the habitat e.g. some plants grow
best in acid soils while others prefer alkaline conditions.
3. Atmospheric factors (Relative Humidity): This is a measure of the amount of moisture in
the air. It affects the rate of transpiration from plants and evaporation from animals. As relative
humidity falls, evaporation and transpiration rise as such organisms that live in areas where
humidity is low must prevent water loss from their body surfaces. E.g. in deserts, the leaves of
plants like the cactus are reduced to spines to prevent loss of water.

Ecological Factors That Affect Aquatic Habitats

1. Salinity: This refers to the concentration of salts in the water. Salinity affects the movement of
water and salts across the body tissues of aquatic organisms. Salinity is low in fresh water, high
in sea water and moderate in brackish water. Aquatic organisms have to maintain the osmotic
balance between their body fluids and their aquatic surroundings in order to survive. Those
living in fresh water have adaptive features which enable them get rid of excess water that enters
their bodies; those living in sea water have body fluids with almost the same salt concentration as
the sea water while those living in brackish water have body tissues that can tolerate wide and
sudden fluctuations in salt concentration of their body fluids.
2. Depth Of Water: As a body of water becomes deeper, the amount of light and dissolved
oxygen become less, so at the bottom of deep lakes and oceans, there may be too little light for
photosynthesis as such no green plants can grow there. Shallow bodies of water such as ponds
are usually well supplied with oxygen and light and support a lot of plants and animals.
However, these habitats are subject to evaporation and drying up in the dry seasons, the plants
and animals therefore have to develop adaptation to survive such conditions. E.g. formation of
cysts by some protozoans.
3. Turbidity: This refers to cloudiness of water. It is caused as a result of suspended materials in
water. Light penetration is low in cloudy or muddy water and this hinders green plants from
growing at some depths.
4. Dissolved Gases: This refers to dissolved oxygen. Oxygen concentration of water decreases
with depth. Oxygen is required by most aquatic organisms for respiration as such organisms
which live in stagnant or very deep water have to be able to tolerate low levels of oxygen
concentration. Organisms that require high oxygen concentration, usually live near the surface of
deep water or in fast-flowing rivers and streams e.g. the simulium larva lives in fast flowing
streams.
5. Tides and Wave Action: Tidal movement refers to the regular rise and fall in the level of the
sea. Organisms which live in the intertidal zone of a seashore have to be able to tolerate being
alternately covered by sea-water and then exposed to air twice daily.
Wave action is also important both in the intertidal and splash zones of the seashore. Most
organisms in these areas are attached to the substratum or live in burrows. Some attach
themselves firmly to rocks and other immovable objects, while some others have hard body
covering to prevent evaporation of water from their bodies. Waves cause the aeration of the
surface waters of the open sea, thus enabling aquatic organisms to have sufficient supply of
dissolved gases for their needs.
6. Speed of Flow (currents): Plants and animals are affected by the rate at which the water
flows. Some organism’s e.g. spirogyra prefer to live in slow moving stagnant water while others
e.g. Tilapia, prefer fast-flowing water. Many organisms which live in fast-flowing rivers and
streams have adaptations which serve to prevent them from being swept away from their support
by currents in water. Water currents increase aeration and the turbidity of the water. Currents also
carry warm water to colder regions and this affects the distribution of organisms.
7. Density: Density of water varies with the type of habitat. The density of fresh water is about
1.00 while that of sea water is 1.028 at atmospheric pressure and 0ºc. It is easier to move through
air than water because water is more dense, as such aquatic organisms have a streamlined shape
to help them move easily through water. Some organisms that float on the surface are sensitive to
changes in density e.g. eggs of aquatic organisms sink to different depths depending on the
density of the water.

Ecological Factors Common To All Habitats

The ecological factors that affect both the terrestrial and aquatic habitats are mainly climatic e.g.
temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, wind, high intensity hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
and pressure. Of these factors temperature and rainfall determine the type of vegetation in a
region.
1. Temperature: This refers to degree of hotness or coldness. Variation in temperature results in
hot or cold climate. It affects the terrestrial habitat more than the aquatic habitat. In the terrestrial
habitat temperature varies with season, while in the aquatic habitat it decreases with depth.
A rise in temperature usually results in a higher rate of transpiration in plants and higher rate of
metabolism in most animals (except homoiotherms). Most living organisms are killed by high
temperatures and it reduces the performance of some. Low temperatures lead to inactivity or
dormancy. In some organisms (e.g. tadpoles, insect larvae and bacteria) a rise in temperature
results in faster rate of growth and shorter length of life-cycle. A higher rate of evaporation of
water from the soil, ponds and lakes and a lower relative humidity are also observed.
Too high or too low temperature inhibits the growth and life activities of living things. However
most organisms have various adaptive features that allow them to live at low or high
temperatures e.g. Bears living in the arctic regions have very thick furs.
2. Rainfall: Rain is the main source of water to most organisms. It also supplies water to soil on
which land plants depends. It is also the major source of water in rivers, ponds, lakes, oceans etc.
The amount of rainfall in an area has a major effect on the type of vegetation found there. Low
amount of rainfall usually causes drought on land and drying up of freshwater habitats (which
leads to death of animals). Too much rain causes floods and destruction of vegetation through
erosion.
Rainfall increases relative humidity and also increases turbidity of streams, rivers and lakes.
Rainfall is necessary for seed germination. It helps to dissolve nutrients in the soil thus making
them available to plants. It is also necessary for the vegetative growth of most crops e.g.
flowering and proper development of groundnut pods.
Rain water may form puddles and small pools which provide temporary habitats for mosquito
larvae, algae and tadpoles. It is also necessary for the start of new termite colonies.
3. Light: Light is necessary for photosynthesis in green plants. It affects the productivity of crops
and facilitates flowering and fruiting in some plants. Light is the ultimate source of energy for all
organisms. Light affects the activities of animals e.g. some animals are active during the day
(butterfly) while others are active at night (cockroaches). The ultra-violet rays of the sun enable
animals to manufacture vitamin D.
4. Wind: Winds are important because they cause water currents and waves thus mixing water
and making food available in aquatic habitat, Winds carry rain bearing clouds. They also
determine a season e.g. In Nigeria, the S/W wind is responsible for the rainy season while the
N/E wind brings the harmattan. Wind has drying effects (on land) and so it increases the rate of
transpiration in plants. In an area exposed to strong winds only xerophytes can grow there.
Winds also aid pollination of flowers and dispersal of seeds and fruits. Winds increase the rate of
evaporation from the soil and in savanna and desert areas it is a major cause of soil erosion.
Winds also play an important role in the establishment of insects in a given area.
5. Pressure: Atmospheric pressure decreases from the depths of the ocean upwards to the higher
attitude of the atmosphere. Plants and animals have special adaptations to a particular level of
pressure to enable them survive. For instance in the oceans, the pressure increases by 1.03kg/m²
every 10m, so organisms found at depths of about 400m live in conditions of enormous pressure
but are well adapted to such conditions and will not survive at levels with lower pressure.
6. Hydrogen ion Concentration (pH): This refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil or water
in a habitat. pH affects the types of plants and animals in a habitat. E.g. some plants grow best in
acidic conditions while others can only grow in alkaline conditions. In aquatic habitats pH varies
with the salinity of the water. Freshwater is neutral while sea water is fairly alkaline (pH 8.5).
Organisms like the freshwater mollusks (Mytilus) are usually absent in water with a pH less than
6 (i.e. acidic water).

Biotic Factors Affecting the Ecosystem

Biotic factors refer to the effects of plants and animals on themselves or one another. The biotic
factors include:
1. Parasitism: One organism called the parasite lives in or on another organism called the host.
The parasite benefits while the host suffers harm or may die.
2. Competition: This may occur between organisms of the same species or different species.
Competition may be for food, space, mates, etc. One of the organisms will eventually over come
the other.
3. Commensalism: This involves two organisms living together. One of the organisms (the
commensal) benefits from the association while the other organism neither benefits nor is
harmed.
4. Predation: This involves an organism (called the predator), killing / feeding on another
organism (the prey).
5. Trampling: Grazing animals trample on plants and invertebrates.
6. Pollination of flowers by insects (this aids continuity and increase).
7. Aeration of the soil by some animals e.g. earthworms, termites, etc.
8. Support provided to climbing plants by trees or bigger plants.
9. Shade provided by trees, etc.

EVALUATION

1. State five ecological factors that (a) affect terrestrial habitats (b) affect aquatic habitats (c)
are common to both habitats

2. Discuss two of each set of factors mentioned above.

Simple Measurement of Ecological Factors

1. Temperature: This is measured using a mercury thermometer read in degree celcius (ºc). At
least two readings are taken in a particular area of the habitat being studied to ensure accuracy. A
soil thermometer is used for soil temperature, a maximum-minimum thermometer for recording
the highest and lowest temperature of the day, and a waxed bulb thermometer for temperature of
water at different depths in a pond, stream, etc. The waxed bulb thermometer is usually tied to a
string knotted at regular intervals to indicate depth.

2. Rainfall: This is measured with a rain gauge. This can be made from a tin can, a plastic funnel
and a 50ml measuring cylinder. The amount of rainfall is calculated in millimeters, with the
formula
dD2×h= rainfall for a period where;
d = diameter of mouth of funnel
h = height of rainwater in the cylinder
D = diameter of collecting cylinder
Usually, the height of the water in the cylinder indicates the amount of rainfall after every storm.
3. Relative Humidity: This is measured using a wet and dry bulb hygrometer, or a pocket
hygrometer. The pocket hygrometer is exposed to air and the reading taken after the lever arm
has stabilized. The wet and dry bulb hygrometer is swung in air for 30seconds and the reading on
the thermometers taken and converted to relative humidity units using a table of conversion. The
hygrometer may also be kept in a Stevenson’s screen.
4. Wind: Wind has both speed and direction. Wind direction is measured / indicated by a wind
vane while wind speed is measured with an anemometer (recorded in ms¹‫)־‬.
5. Light Intensity: Is measured by a light meter or photometer. The readings on the meter are
expressed in lux units. The greater the intensity of light, the higher the readings on the meter and
vice-versa.
6. Pressure: Atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer. It is measured in millibars (or
millimeters of mercury, mmHg). The readings are taken directly from a scale.

7. Water Depth: Is measured with a meter rule or a marked and weighted line knotted at one
meter intervals. The meter rule is attached to a weighted line to ensure that it is vertical in water.
8. Water Flow: To measure the speed of flow of a water body, the distance (m) covered per unit
times by a float is taken. The float may be a weight tube and the distance covered has to be pre-
determined. Speed of the current is calculated in meters per second. A simple water-speed meter
can be used to compare the speed of water flow at different positions in a stream
9. Turbidity: Is measured by slowly sinking a weighted white disc called a secchi disc into the
water, noting the depth at which it just cannot be seen anymore. This is not a real measurement
of turbidity but a useful method of comparing the turbidity of different aquatic habitats, different
sites of the same habitats, or at different times.
10. Slope: Is measured with a simple slope gauge constructed with a meter rule to which a
protractor is attached. The angle readings on the protractor are read and recorded. Small angles
indicate a steep slope.
11. Height: The height of objects like tall trees is measured using the principle of similar
triangles.

EVALUATION
State five ecological factors and describe how they are measured.

Relationship between Soil Types and Water Holding Effects

of Soil on Vegetation
Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust which provides support and nutrient for plants
growth and habitat for some animals. The soil is a complete mixture of mineral matter, humus,
air and living organisms. Soil is classified on the basis of the size of the particles present in it.
Soil particles vary in size and chemical composition, depending on the types of rock from which
they were formed and how they were weathered. Those soils with a high proportion of sand are
known as sandy soils; those with a high proportion of clay and silt are called clayey soils and
those with nearly equal amount of sand, clay and silt are known as loamy soils. The proportions
of these particles in the soil have an important effect on their properties and on the types of
plants found on them.
Types of Soil
1. Sandy Soil: This contains 80% sand and gravel and 20% of the other types of particles taken
together. Large coarse particles of sand and gravel predominate.
2. Clay Soil: This contains more fine clay (60%) and silt particles.
3. Loamy Soil: This contains a mixture of both clay and sand with some humus in roughly equal
proportion. Loamy soils are the most fertile and the humus in it gives it a mellow tilth i.e. the
size of the soil particles and the air spaces between the particles are the most suitable for
cultivation.
Effects of Soil On Vegetation
Soil factors play an important role in determining the vegetation of a region. Soils account for
the variation in type of plants that are found in regions with similar climates. To support a rich
growth of plants, soil must have the following characteristic;
(i) A rich humus content
(ii) A rich mineral content
(iii) A good water-holding capacity; this is determined by the amount of humus and clay in it.
(iv) Good soil porosity; determined by the humus, sand content and soil texture.
Sandy soil is low in plant nutrient and so it supports scanty vegetation or grassland. Clay soil has
a little more amount of plants nutrients than sandy soils and thus can support light vegetation
such as shrubs. Loamy soil is very fertile and can support luxuriant vegetations such as a forest.
Water Holding Capacity of Soil
Water holding capacity of soil refers to the ability of the soil to retain water. The amount of
water retained by any soil depends or the size of the particles, the humus content, aeration,
temperature and presence of microbes. Clay and humus retain a higher amount of the water than
sand. In clay soil, most of the water is held firmly to the surface of the soil particles
(hygroscopic water) and this is not usually available to plants. In sandy soil very little amount
of water is retained as most of it drains off. Loamy soil is able to retain more water within its
particles. This is called capillary water and is available for plants use.

Practical Guide on Soil

1. Experiment to Determine The Water Retaining Capacity of Soil Types
Title of experiment: To compare the porosity and water holding capacity of three soil types
Materials required: Three measuring cylinders of 100cm³, cotton wool, three funnels, water,
dry sand, dry clay, dry loam, stop clock, balance.
Method: Stand the three funnels in the three measuring cylinders and block the funnels with
cotton wool.

1. Place an equal weight of dry sand, dry clay and dry loam in the three funnels respectively.
2. Pour 50ml of water onto each sample at the same time and allow to drain.
3. Allow the set up to stand for an hour or until the water has stopped dripping through each
funnel.

4. Read the level of water in the measuring cylinder.

Calculations:
(a) Rate of drainage/porosity is calculated from the amount of water collected in the measuring
cylinder. The more the water, the more porous the soil sample. Usually porosity is highest in
sandy soil because it has large pore spaces and large particle sizes, followed by loamy soil and
then clay soil which has the least drainage because of its tiny pore spaces and fine particles .
(b) Water holding/retaining capacity is calculated as follows;
Volume of water added to soil =50ml
Volume of water collected in cylinder =xml
Volume of water retained in the soil =(50−x)ml
The percentage of water retained in each of the soil samples will be
50−x50×100=Y%

Observation: It is observed that water drained out from the sandy soil faster than the loamy soil
and finally the clay soil. It was also observed that clayey soil retained more water than loamy soil
and least retained by the sandy soil.
Conclusion: Sandy soil is more porous than loam which is more porous than clay. Clayey soil
retained more water than the loamy soil and the sandy soil retained the least amount of water.
2. Experiment To Compare The Capillary Action Of Soil Types
1. Take three wide glass tubes and plug each at one end with cotton wool.
2. Nearly fill the tubes with the three soil samples separately.
3. Clamp the tubes upright in a trough of water,
4. Allow the set-up to remain for 3-6 hours
5. Observe every 30mins.
Observation: It will be observed that at the early stage of the rise of water in the three tubes, it
was faster in sandy soil than the clay and loamy soil samples, however by the end of the
experiment the water had risen to the highest levels in loam, followed by clay but remained at a
low level in the sandy soil.
Conclusion: Loamy and clayey soils have greater capillary actions due to their tiny pore spaces.
The presence of organic matter in loam also enhanced its capillary. The sandy soil had poor
capillary action because of its large pore spaces and large particles.

EVALUATION

1. List the three major soil types.

2. Discuss the constituents of the soil types mentioned.
3. Compare the water holding capacities of the three soil types.
4. Describe how the height of a forest tree can be measured?
5. In a table outline the properties/characteristics of the three major soil types (at least ten
properties)

6. Make large well labeled drawings of a maximum and minimum thermometer; a rain
gauge, a wind vane, an anemometer, a light meter, a secchi disc, a barometer and a slope
gauge.

WEEK 5
FUNCTIONAL ECOSYSTEM:
AUTOTROPHY AND HETEROTROPHY
CONTENT

1. Producers
2. Consumers
3. Aquatic and Terrestrial

Meaning of Ecosystem
In this topic, the question a wise student will ask is; what is ecosystem? First of all, the word
‘eco’ simply means ecology so, it is ecological system. Let us consider this illustration, in a
freshwater habitat where you have aquatic plant such as spirogyra, animals such as tilapia, frogs
and toads. All this living things interact with the non- living environment which includes the
water where they are, the atmosphere, and the soil beneath it. These living things in the
environment together with the non-living environment constitute an ecological system or
ecosystem. Therefore, an ecosystem is defined as the interrelationship between the living
things and their non-living environment
Components of an Ecosystem
In an ecosystem, there are two major parts; the biotic or living and abiotic or non-living part.
Then from the functional point of view, we have three kinds as producers, consumers, and
decomposers. The producers are always green plants; the consumers are the animals, while the
decomposers are the saprophytes.

Under the consumers we have the following:

1. Primary consumers, e.g. grasshopper, rat etc.

2. Secondary consumers, e.g. cat, lizard etc.
3. Tertiary consumer, e.g. hawks, snakes.
4. Omnivores, e.g. man, domestic fowl.
Decomposers are organisms which feed on the carcasses of dead producers and consumers and in
the process bring about the decay of such carcasses. Large decomposers such as insects and
earthworms are called macro decomposers, whereas small decomposers, such as certain bacteria
and fungi are known as micro decomposers.

Some Products of Decomposition

In the process of decomposition, dead organic matter is broken down physically and chemically,
and this is done in stages. Now, the product of this decomposition is inorganic compounds like
carbon (iv) oxide, ammonium, ammonium compound as well as salts of elements present in the
organic matter. Some gaseous products such as carbon (iv) oxide, ammonia and hydrogen
sulphide can be identified as organic matter decomposes. Intermediate products of
decomposition include sugars, and complex organic compound derived from protein.
Role of Decomposers
The role of decomposers is the recycling conversion of materials of dead organic materials
into inorganic materials which are available to the producers in the ecosystem.

Coral Reef in the Red Sea

Coral reefs represent the most complex aquatic ecosystem found on Earth. Although coral reefs
can be found between 30 degrees north and south latitude, the greatest concentration is found
between 4 degrees north and south latitude in the western portions of all major oceans. There are
two broad categories of coral reefs: shelf reefs and oceanic reefs. Shelf reefs include fringing
reefs, platform reefs, bank reefs, and barrier reefs and are located on the continental shelf, while
oceanic reefs are found off the continental shelf growing around the margins of volcanic islands.
Coral reefs support greater numbers of fish and invertebrate species than any other ecosystem in
the ocean.

EVALUATION

1. Define the term ecosystem.

2. List the two major parts of the ecological system
3. Outline four classes of consumer with on example each.
4. Write the two types of decomposers.
ASSIGNMENT

1. Write short notes on (a) autotrophs (b) Heterotrophs.

2. Sketch the organogram of the ecosystem
3. Find out the group of consumers the Carnivores belong.
4. Give an instance in writing to show how living things
interact with their non living environment.

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL
Carry out an activity to show that heat is released during decomposition.

Food Chain, Food Webs and Trophic Levels

As living and non-living things interact, energy is transferred from one level to the other. The
ecosystem actually operates as a movement where all organisms depend on the primary
producers, the green plants.
1. Food Chain
Food chain is the transfer of food energy from producers (green plants) to a series of organisms
in a habitat. In the arrangement of the food chain, the natural rule is that it must start from a
producer or an autotroph. Some examples of food chain are below:

1. Grass → Grasshopper → Lizard →

Snake
2. Plankton → Tilapia → Water snake
3. Dead wood → Termite → Frog → Hawk
Note: that each level of competition in the food chain is called a trophic level. Looking at
example 1, it represents the terrestrial habitat.
2. Food Web
Considering food chain energy pathway, you will observe that it is a single energy pathway. In
the actual sense, such simple food chains as shown above rarely exist within a community
because consumers rarely depend on only one type of food. Often a particular food item is eaten
by more than one consumer. Therefore, a network of interrelated food chains forms what is
called a food web.
3. Trophic Levels
These are stages at which the energy is found as it moves through the various organisms or levels
of transfer in the ecosystem. Hence, trophic level refers to the part of a food chain.
4. Food Pyramid
Food pyramid is a representation of food chain in the food producers from the base and
carnivores from the apex.
5. Pyramid of Numbers
This is the progressive drop in the population at each higher or successive trophic level of the
food chain or the relative decrease in number or organisms in a food chain as one ascends the
higher trophic levels.
6. Pyramid of Biomass
The pyramid of Biomass (or standing crop) indicates, by weight, the total mass of individuals or
organisms at each trophic levels.

A Pyramid of Biomass
7. Pyramid of Energy
This is the progressive drop or decrease in the total available energy at each higher trophic level
or the progressive diminution of energy in the feeding chain as one ascends the higher trophic
levels.

Differences between Pyramid of Numbers and Pyramid of

Energy
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Energy
This is based on a
Size of organism is not recognized,
1. common
only numbers are counted
unit of energy joule
Shape is not constant, it might be
inverted
2. Shape is constant
e.g. grasshoppers feeding on a large
tree.

Non-cyclic Nature of Chemical Energy Transfer

The energy flow in an ecosystem is not cyclic because being an energy pyramid, it moves from
the producers at the bottom of the pyramid up to a point where it cannot be used by living things
anymore. It is either used by the organisms in the ecosystem or it is lost to the atmosphere. For
example, energy stored in cow = energy stored in grass – (energy for cow’s activities + energy
lost to the atmosphere).

Nutrient Movement
Nutrient movement refers to the chemical energy in form of carbohydrates, fats, protein, and
other nutrients are distributed among producers, consumers and decomposers. It just about how
nutrients flow from one energy level to the other in the ecosystem.

Energy Flow
Under this topic, we shall consider the following: food pyramid, pyramid of numbers, pyramid of
biomass, and pyramid of energy. In any natural community, the number of individuals at the
lower part of the food chain or web is greater than those above. Producers are therefore greater
than primary consumers, and secondary consumers less in number than the primary consumers.
This number reduces till the terminal group of organism is reached which have no predators
depending on them for food. When these numbers are diagrammatically represented, a pyramid
of numbers is obtained.
EVALUATION

1. Explain the following with a typical example: Food Chain,

Food Web, and trophic level.
2. Why is the energy flow in the ecosystem not cyclic.
3. What is nutrient movement?
4. Write a short note on energy flow.
5. State two the differences between pyramid of numbers and
the pyramid of energy.
 6. Define the term (i) consumers (ii) producers.
7. Sketch a diagram of typical food web
8. Classify the following organisms: cow, bacteria, green
plants, herbivores, fungi, and man into producer, primary,
secondary and tertiary consumer.

WEEK 6
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN
NATURE
CONTENT

1. Energy Loss in the Ecosystem (i) Solar Radiation (ii)

Energy Loss in the Biosphere (iii) Measure of Primary
Production
2. Laws of Thermodynamics

Energy Loss in the Ecosystem

You remember that energy exists in various forms, and various forms are interconvertible and as
such one form of energy can be transformed into one another form. In nature, energy
transformations are brought about by living organisms. Their activities cause energy to flow
through ecosystems unidirectionally. Now, how does energy get lost in the ecosystem?
Solar Energy
Only about 2% of solar energy is used by green plants while the rest is lost to the earth’s surface.
Thus, energy is a limited factor in the production of autotrophs.
Energy Transformation in Nature
When primary consumer, the herbivores feed on the producers, the green plants, the secondary
consumers, the carnivores in turn feed on the herbivores; the energy transferring efficiency in
each stage is about 5-20% while the rest is lost to the atmosphere.
Energy Laws
Energy transformations in nature are governed by the laws of thermodynamics.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

This states that when one form of energy is converted into another, the total quantity of energy is
constant (there is no net loss or gain in energy) that is to say that energy is neither created nor
destroyed. Hence, in the process of burning, chemical energy of wood changes into heat and
light. In a motor vehicle, energy in the form of fuel changes into mechanical energy. So, energy
can only be converted from one form to the other.

Second Law Of Thermodynamics

The law states that when one form of energy is converted into another, a proportion of it is
converted into heat. The second law of thermodynamics is sometimes known as the entropy law;
entropy being a measure of disorder in terms of unavailable energy in a closed thermodynamic
system.

How the Laws are Used to Explain Energy Flow Across the
Trophic Levels
Pyramid of Energy
1. According to the first law, energy is transferred into a
variety of other forms in the successive trophic level but the
sum total is constant.
 2. Using the second law, we observe that during energy
transformation in the successive trophic levels, a proportion
of it is converted into heat which is lost, hence the
progressive drop in energy in successive trophic levels and
also the pyramidal shape of feeding relationship.
Food Chain
1. In accordance with first law, chemical energy stored in
plants, can be converted into light energy in glow-worm
which in turn is converted into electrical energy in fire-fly
and when eaten by man, it is converted into mechanical
energy in muscular contraction without any loss or gain.
2. The second law shows that when energy flows through a
food chain, only a small proportion of the energy taken up
by each link is transferred to the next step. This is because
at each transfer, most of the energy is lost as heat.
According to the second law:
1. In the flow of energy from herbivore to carnivore, there is
loss of usable energy. This loss of energy means that les life
can be maintained at highest trophic level.
2. The energy travels from one organism to another with a
loss of energy each time it enters another organism. The
various organisms represent trophic levels or stages of
energy flow.
EVALUATION

1. State the laws of thermodynamics

2. Explain the term entropy law.
3. How does law of thermodynamics apply to pyramid of
energy?
4. Explain what happens when heat is lost in a food chain.
5. Explain various ways through which energy flow from the
producer to you.
WEEK 7
THE RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO
AGRICULTURE
CONTENT
1. Classification of Plants
(a) Botanical Classification of Plants
(b) Agricultural Classification of Plants
(c) Classification of Plants based on Life Cycle
2. Effects of Agricultural Activities on Ecological system
3. Pests and Diseases of Agricultural Importance
Classification of Plants
Classification of plants is based on botanical techniques and agricultural techniques. The
botanical techniques where all plants are grouped into plant kingdom based mainly on structure,
function and evolutionary trends is not very useful to a farmer. The agricultural techniques
involve nature of the products and life cycle. Hence plant can be classified based on the
following:
(i) Botanical classification
(ii) Nature and uses of products
(iii) Life cycle

(a) Botanical Classification of Plants

This is the classification system of flora and fauna that uses the binomial system of nomenclature
in which every plant is given two names (generic and specific names). The generic names are
always written first starting with capital letter while the Last which is the specific names are
written in small letters. The names are either italised or underlined separately. E.g. Rhizopus
nigricans or Marchantia Palmata.
Based on what is present or absent on the plants, Botanist grouped plants by considering the
plants structure, presence of flower and mode of reproduction.
Plants are classified into two groups
(i) Non flowering plant
(ii) Flowering plants

(i) Non-flowering Plants

These are plants that do not have or produce flower. They are lower plants lacking vascular
bundles, they lack true roots stems and leaves. The non-flowering or seedless plants are
classified into three groups:

1. Thallophyta: these are plants that have bodies called thalli.

They lack organs like roots, stems, leaves, flowers and
vascular tissues. Examples: Algae, fungi, bacteria and
Lichens.
2. Bryophyta: the plants are multicellular and non vascular.
They have stem-like and leaf-like structures but lack roots.
Bryophytes live in moist place and reproduce by spores.
They have rhizoids through which the plant absorbs
nutrients from the soil.
3. Pteridophyta: they are multicellular plants with true roots,
stems and leaves but lack flowers. The vascular system os
primitive as well as chlorophyll. They reproduce by spores.
Some of them are aquatic while some are terrestrial e.g.
ferns (Dryopteris, Nephrolepsis).
(ii) Flowering Plants
These are the higher plants called spermatophytes or seed plants. They produce flowers and are
vascular plants. Spermatophytes are further grouped and classified into angiosperms and
gymnosperms.
(a) Angiosperms: these are plants produce seed which are enclosed. Seed is produced and
protected by seed coat. Angiosperms are further grouped into dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
(i) Monocotyledons are plants with one seedleaf or one cotyledon. They have parallel-veined
leaves. They possess fibrous root systems.
(ii) Dicotyledons are plants with two seed leaves or cotyledons. The leaves are net-veined or
reticulate e.g. beans, melon, mango and tomato.
(b) Gymnosperms: this group also produce see but the seeds are naked. The seeds are not
enclosed in the plant e.g. pines and cones.
(b) Agricultural Classification of Plants
In agriculture, cultivated plants or crops are grouped according to the products for which they are
grown as given below:
(i) Cereals: these plants belong to the grass family. The grains have a high starch content and
varying amounts of proteins e.g. maize, rice, millet, wheat and guinea corn.
(ii) Legumes: these plants are important source of dietary protein. They also supply protein-rich
fodder for livestock in tropical countries. Legumes replenish soil nitrogen-fixing bacteria are
present in their root nodules. Examples include beans, cowpea, soya-bean, groundnut, oil bean,
lina bean and yam-bean.
(iii) Root crops: they are grown mainly for starch and form the staple food of the people in
many tropical countries; e.g. cassava, yam and sweet potato.
(iv) Vegetables: they are grown to supply dietary vitamins and certain minerals like calcium.
Examples include tomato, okra, onion, pepper and spinach.
(v) Fruits: fruits are rich sources of vitamins especially vitamins A and C, minerals and sugars.
Most fruits are eaten raw. Examples include orange, banana, pineapple, plantain, mango and
pawpaw.
(vi) Beverages and drugs: the crops which yield these product include cocoa, coffee, tobacco
and guinea.
(vii) Spices: pepper, ginger, cinnamon and cloves belong to this group. They are used mainly for
flavouring food.
(viii) Oils: oils producing plants include coconut, oil palm, shea-butter and groundnut.
(ix) Latex: when a cut is made on the trunks of certain trees, a milky fluid called latex flows out.
The rubber tree produces white latex which is coagulated into exported rubber.
(x) Fibres: Plants such as jute, hemp and cotton are grown for their fibres which are used for
making ropes and cloth.
(xi) Forage crops: these are grasses and legumes that are grown for animal feed.

Agriculture in the Qatar Desert

On a government-supported farm in Qatar, seedlings sprout from carefully monitored containers.
Only about 3 percent of the land in this largely arid country is under cultivation. Technology has
improved crop output significantly, however, and during the rainy season, Qatar now produces
nearly all the vegetables it needs for a six-month period.
(c) Classification of Plants based on Life Cycle
Plants are grouped on how long or short they live to complete their life cycle i.e. duration of their
life cycles. It is a practical way of classifying crop plants as it helps a farmer to plan how to use
his land to meet his goals. Plants are classified into animals, biennials and perennials.
(i) Ephemerals: These are plants that complete their life cycles within three to four months and
can undergo two to three life cycles within a growing season. Examples include waterleaf (eg
Talinum triangularare,) goat weed (Ageratum conyziodes).
(ii) Annuals: these are plants that complete their entire life cycle and die within one growing
season which may be from a few months to a year. Examples include rice, wheat, maize, beans,
flax, jute and sunflower.
(iii) Biennials: these are plants which complete their life cycled in two years. The plant grow and
store food during the first growing season to produce and use it in the second growing season to
produce flowers fruits and seed before they die. Examples include cabbage, turnip and radish.
(iv) Perennials: these plants complete their life cycles in many years or have many growing
seasons for life cycles to be completed e.g. mango, orange, oil palm, and ginger.
EVALUATION

1. State two differences between angiosperms and

gymnosperms.
2. State two differences between monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous plants.
3. Give two examples of each of the following groups of
plants. (a) cereals (b) fibres (c) legumes (d) beverages (e)
oils.
4. Classify plants on the bases of life cycle.
WEEK 8
MICRO-ORGANISMS AROUND US
CONTENT
1. Micro-organisms in Air and Water
(i) Group of Micro-organisms: Bacteria, Viruses, Some algae, Protozoa, Fungi
(ii) The Concept of Culturing
2. Identification of Micro-organisms in (i) Air (ii) Pond Water (iii) River (iv) The Concept of
Culturing
3. Micro-organisms in Our Bodies and Food
4. Carriers of Micro-organisms: Examples, Location of the Micro-organism in Carriers and
Types of Micro-organism

Micro Organisms in Air and Water

Introduction: Micro-organisms are very tiny living organisms are also known as microbes.

T-Lymphocyte Infected With HIV

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS). By infecting CD4 T-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, HIV weakens the immune
system and leaves the infected individual open to deadly infections. The viruses gain access to a
T-lymphocyte by attaching to CD4 proteins on the outer surface of the cell membrane.
Microbes
Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1733) was the first scientist to discover microbes with his
newly invented microscope.
Micro-organisms are dreaded as disease causing agents (germs). However, many microbes are of
great benefits to man e.g. saprophytic microbes that bring about decay of organic matter. Those
microbes that affect man negatively are mainly the parasitic ones which are called pathogen.
Micro-organisms are found everywhere – in the air, water, soil, in our food, on our food, on
surfaces of objects, and on and inside living organisms, on our bodies, inside of our bodies and
on our clothes in shut, anywhere everywhere.
1. Groups of Micro-organisms
Microbes are very many and are grouped as follows:
(i) Bacteria
(ii) Viruses
(iii) Some algae
(iv) Protozoa
(v) Some fungi
Most microbes are unicellular but some fungi and algae are multi-cellular. Several microbes
survive adverse conditions of temperature or humidity by forming spaces the within the cell. On
the return of favourable condition of the spores are released carried in the air and on landing on
suitable substrate grow and produce more spores.

Hepatitis B Virus
The hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes inflammation of the liver. The virus is recognizable under
magnification by the round, infectious “Dane particles” accompanied by tube-shaped, empty
viral envelopes. Symptoms of hepatitis B infection include jaundice and a flulike illness, while
chronic infection can lead to serious problems such as cirrhosis and cancer of the liver.

1. Bacteria
Bacteria can be seen with the use of a light microscope. It has a simple structure. It is unicellular.
It is a prokaryotic cell i.e. it does not have a true nucleus. Heredity materials are contained in a
strand of DNA (Deoxyribose nucleic acid) inside the cell.

Types of Bacteria
Bacteria can be described based on the following:

1. Oxygen requirement
2. Shapes
3. Gram’s staining technique
1. Based on oxygen requirement
• Aerobic Bacteria: This group of Bacteria uses oxygen in

respiration e.g. vibrio cholerae.

• Obligate anaerobes: This group of bacteria do not utilize

oxygen in respiration e.g. putrifying bacteria.

• Facultative anaerobes: These are bacteria that can exist in

two states e. they can use oxygen and they can also do
without oxygen.
2. Based on shape
• Cocci:- This group are round in shape.

• Bacilli:- They have rod-like shape.

• Spirillae:- These are spiral in shape.

• Vibrios:- They are comma shaped.

• Flagellated Spirochaetes:- A number of bacteria have whip-

 like structure called flagella that effect their movement.

Types of Bacteria

3. Based on Gram’s staining technique

• Gram positive bacteria: retains the purple/violet stain in its

peptidoglycan (a large structural molecule found in the

bacteria cell wall)
• Gram negative bacteria: loses or do not retain the purple

stain in the cells

Bacteria can be the cause of a number of plant and animal diseases.
(a) Plant diseases caused by bacteria e.g. web blight in cowpeas, black arm in cotton, etc.
(b) Animal diseases caused by bacteria e.g. leprosy, lockjaw, cholera, etc.

Anatomy of a Simple Bacterium

Bacteria cells typically are surrounded by a rigid, protective cell wall. The cell membrane, also
called the plasma membrane, regulates passage of materials into and out of the cytoplasm, the
semi-fluid that fills the cell. The DNA, located in the nucleoid region, contains the genetic
information for the cell. Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis. Many baceteria contain a pilus
(plural pili), a structure that extends out of the cell to transfer DNA to another bacterium. The
flagellum, found in numerous species, is used for locomotion. Some bacteria contain a plasmid, a
small chromososme with extra genes. Others have a capsule, a sticky substance external to the
cell wall that protects bacteria from attack by white blood cells. Mesosomes were formerly
thought to be structures with unknown functions, but now are know to be artifacts created when
cells are prepared for viewing with electron microscopes.

2. Viruses
They are unicellular in nature, without nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. Smaller than
bacteria and can only be seen under electron microscope. Virus lack life. Thus it cannot respire
nor carry out metabolism. They can only survive inside living cells.
Types of Viruses
Viruses can be grouped based on:

1. Type of nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)

2. Nature of Protein coat
1. Based on type nucleic acid
• Adenovirus, Herpesvirus (DNA)

• Picornavirus, Togavirus, Orthomyxovirus, Paramyxovirus,

Coronavirus (RNA)
2. Based on nature of protein coat
• Adenovirus, Herpesvirus, Picornavirus, Togavirus

(icosahedral in nature – i.e a polygon with 20 faces and 12

corners)
• Orthomyxovirus, Paramyxovirus, Coronavirus (helical in

nature)

3. Algae
They are mainly free-living microscopic plants. They survive in a wide range of habits such as
wet soil, fresh water, sea etc. they have chlorophyll to a number of other pigments giving rise to
green algae, brown algae, blue/green algae etc. examples of algae are: Sprirogyra, volvox,
chlamy domonas,nostoc, Diatoms etc.

4. Protozoa
These are unicellular microscopic animals. They are found in damp soil and water. Some of them
are parasitic while others live freely in their habit. Examples of parasitic protozoa are:
Trypanosome, plasmodium etc. examples of free-living Protozoa are: Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
parasitic protozoans are pathogens that cause disease like Malaria, sleeping sickness, Bilharziasis
etc.

5. Fungi
These are non-green simple plants. They feed Saprophytically or parasitically. Saprophytic fungi
such as mucor, yeast, penicilium are useful to man. Parasitic fungi do cause diseases which are
unpleasant to man. Example of animal diseases caused by fungi is: Ringworm, Athelet’s foot,
mouth thrush, candidiases etc. Plant diseases caused by parasitic fungi are: mildews, spots, wild,
blights and Rots.
The Concept of Culturing
Culturing is a technique of growing micro-organisms in the laboratory for the studying the
microbes.
The process has to do with:

1. Preparing a sterile medium

2. Inoculating
3. Incubating
4. Examining micro-organism in the medium.
While bacteria, fungi and algae can be grown in test tubes and Petri dishes in culture media,
viruses cannot be grown. They can only grow and multiple inside living cells of an organism.
Through Tissue culture, living tissues and cells of multi-cellular organism are cultured in
appropriate media and studied. To carry out studies involving viruses, viruses are cultured in the
laboratory by injecting the virus into the fertilized bird’s egg e.g. egg of duck.
On the culture medium, micro-organisms occur as colonies. Colonies of micro-organism do
clump together in large number of organism of the same kind. Colour, appearance other
characteristics of the colonies enable the investigator to identify and differentiate microbes in a
culture medium.

EVALUATION
1 (a) What are Micro-organism?
(b) List the important groups, giving examples of each group.
2 (a) Expalin the concept of culturing.
(b) What steps will you take in preparing a culture solution and state precautions in preparing it.
(c) Identify sources of samples for culturing.

Identification of Micro-organisms in the Air, Pond Water,

River, Stream
1. Micro-organisms in our bodies and food.
2. Carries of Micro-organisms, examples, location of the
Micro-organisms in carries.
3. Types of micro-organisms.
Micro-organisms in the Air
Micro-organisms commonly found in the air are: Bacteria, Virus and Fungi. These microbes do
not grow in the air but are present as spores in dust and water droplets in the air. These spores
are light and easily dispersed by air movement. When these spores land on suitable substrate,
they germinate, multiply and produce more spores. Micro-organisms found in the air and
examples:
(a) Bacteria: Examples – Pneumococci, Staphylococci, Streptococci, Bacillus anthracis, which
causes anthrax in herbivores.
(b) Virus: examples – Influenza, Polio virus, common cold virus, measles virus.
(c) Fungi: Examples – Sacromyces (yeast), Rhizopus nigricans (bread mould), Penicillium
(blue-green mould) Aspergillus etc.

Bacterial Cultures
Colonies of the bacteria known as Escherichia coli (larger, pink) and Proteus vulgaris (smaller,
brown) grow side by side in this petri dish culture. Under normal circumstances both of these
bacteria harmlessly inhabit the human intestines and aid in digestion, but can become pathogenic
and cause infections, such as urinary tract infections. Scientists and doctors grow cultures of
bacteria and study their characteristics in order to learn about bacterial diseases and disease
prevention.
Micro-organisms in Water
Micro organisms found in water are commonly known as plankton. Aquatic environment, unlike
atmosphere are rich in organic and inorganic nutrients. They can be found in all types of water
habitat viz: wells, ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and seas.
All microbes found in water can be grouped into three as follows:

1. Natural water micro-organisms: these are microbes that are

naturally found in aquatic habitats.
2. Soil micro organism ( washed into the surrounding water
bodies during heavy rains)
3. Sewage micro-organisms
 Spirochete
Bacteria, included within the kingdom Prokaryotae, are single-celled organisms lacking a well-
defined internal cellular organization. The bacterium Leptospirilla ichterohemorrhagiae, pictured
here, exhibits the spirochete, or spiral, structure characteristic of many of the 1600 species of
bacteria.
Micro-organisms in Water and their Examples
1. Bacteria: Examples – aquatic species of coccus, Baccillus,
Pseudomonas, Azobacter, Thiobacillus, Sarcinina,
spirillum, Micrococcus, Vibro and Spirochaeta. These
bacteria are either heterotrophic, autotrophic and
chemotrophic.
2. Blue green algae: Examples; oscillatoria, nostoc,
anabaena,
3. Protists: These are autotrophic diatoms e.g.
chlamydomonas, cholera and some species of euglena as
well as heterotrophic amoeba and paramecium.
4. Algae: These are located close to the shore of where they
form thick green floating mesh e.g. spirogyra, volvox etc.
Algae arte major part of primary producers in the aquatic
habitat since they contain chlorophyll and can
photosynthesis.
Micro-organisms in Our Bodies
Various parts of human body such as the skin, hair, mouths, nose, ears, under the nails, our teeth
etc to different micro-organisms as well as serve as entrance for these micro-organisms into our
bodies.
Millions of micro-organisms living inside and outside the human body. These microbes are non-
pathogenic. They are regarded as the normal micro flora which plays importance role in the
body.
This normal micro flora prevents pathogen from invading the body as well as secretes certain
substances that inhibits or kills some other pathogens. Weakened immune systems ,
indiscriminate use of antibiotics, unhygienic practices like smoking and intake of alcohol
malnutrition, stress etc could make non-pathogen to become pathogenic harmful to the body as
the normal micro flora become disturbed.
Pathogens harm the body by using up the hosts’ nutrients thereby starving the tissue of the host.
Through their actions they damage tissues of the affected part of the host as well as produce
toxins that negatively affect the functioning of particular organs or body systems of the
individual.
 Anthrax Bacteria
An electron micrograph shows a cluster of bacteria, Bacillus anthracis, in a capillary of a lung.
The bacteria cause anthrax, a disease in humans and animals that can result in death. Anthrax can
be cured when treated early with antibiotics.

Entry of Micro-organisms into Our Body

Micro-organisms enter the human body through:

1. Buccal cavity: The food we eat and the water we drink.

Such pathogen cause air borne infection like tuberculosis
cause by mycobacterium tuberculosis
2. The nose: Air we breathe in, into the respiratory system
such virus normally cause cold.
3. Damaged skin: Cuts or bruises on the skin into the blood
stream Telamus. fungi infection, leading to ringworm on
the head, foot etc.
4. Oesophagus: Contaminated food or drinking water.
5. Direct contact: Skin surfaces e.g. fungal infections which
result in ringworm of the head and foot.
Micro-organisms in Food
The physical and chemical properties of any food determine the type of micro-organisms that
will grow and reproduce. When micro-organisms or their spores get in contact with food, such
food gets contaminated and when consumed man can have adverse effect on the individual.
Carriers of Micro-organisms
Apart from the various means through which microbes get into our body already discussed, there
are certain organisms that carry micro-organisms that can affect man negatively about. These
organisms are called Careers are usually insects and mammals. The hairy nature of the insect
body traps the microbes and gets carried from place to place. The natural habitats of these insects
include latrines, food stores, dung hills and other similar places where microbes abound. The
careers pick up the pathogens and bring them to exposed human food. As they land on these
exposed food to feed on them, the microbes are transferred to the food which could be eaten by
man and consequently bring about infection and diseases. These careers are called Vectors. The
pathogen neither grow nor affect them adversely hence, they are called Vectors. Vectors are
primary to the pathogen while man is the secondary Host.

EVALUATION

1. What are careers? Give two examples.

2. State the habitat of the career named above.
 Streptococcus Bacteria
This scanning electron micrograph shows disease-causing Streptococcus bacteria, commonly
found in the human mouth, throat, respiratory tract, bloodstream, and wounds. Often airborne in
hospitals, schools, and other public places, Streptococcus bacteria are responsible for infections
such as strep throat, scarlet fever, and some types of pneumonia.
Location of Micro-organisms in Carriers
Organisms that carry micro-organisms are called vectors. Diseases caused by a carrier do not
affect the vector that carries them.
The micro-organism found in vector lives in them temporarily for the purpose of developing to
the stage where they can effectively infect man. Thus the pathogens have two hosts. This
phenomenon is killed alternation of hosts. The vector is the primary host while man is the
secondary host of the pathogen. Mosquitoes, Tsetse fly are examples of vectors of
microorganism that do not develop inside the housefly. Instead the body of the housefly’s body
“collects” micro-organisms as it perches on exposed human food to feed on it, the microbes
(bacteria) falls off its body onto the food which causes disease unto man when contaminated
food is eaten.
Through biting and sucking man’s blood, Anopheles Mosquito transmits a protozoan –
plasmodium into mans blood causing disease – malaria. The pathogen is in the gut of the insect
and as it feeds on the blood of man, it deposits it into man.

EVALUATION

1. Define the following terms: (i) natural microflora (ii)

pathogen (iii) careers (iv) vectors
2. Name and describe the two methods by which pathogens
are carried from place to place.
3. List the important groups of micro-organisms and give one
example from the group.
4. What is culture?
5. Outline the steps you will take in preparing a culture
solution.
6. (a) What do you understand by micro-organisms? (b)
Describe how micro-organisms enter our bodies with
examples and steps preventing them. (c) List the groups of
micro-organism with examples.
7. (a) List micro-organisms found in water with examples. (b)
Micro-organism in 2a can be grouped into 3, name these
groups with short explanations. (c) A group of aquatic
 micro organisms are known as primary producers explain.
8. (a) What is culture? (b) What steps are entails in preparing
a culture solution (c) Outline precautions to observe in
preparing a culture solution.
9. (a) Describe an experiment to show that atmospheric Air
contains micor-organisms. (b) What are the functions of
natural normal micrflora in and on human body? (c) List
two insects and three mammalian vectors, stating the
following for each organism: (i) micro-organisms (ii)
Disease caused (iii) possible control of spread
10. Define the following terms: (a) natural microflora (ii)
pathogen (iii) careers (iv) vectors (b) Write short notes on
the importance of micro-organism to man in the area of (i)
medicine (ii) agriculture

SUGGESTED PRACTICALS

1. Preparation of culture solution.

2. Examine the presence of microbes in air, water, saliva,
under nail.
3. Classification of bacteria using different criteria.
WEEK 9
MICRO-ORGANISMS IN ACTION
CONTENT

1. Meaning of Micro-organisms
2. Types of Micro-organisms
3. Growth of Micro-organisms: Ways of Measuring the
Growth of Microorganisms
4. Beneficial Effects of Micro-organisms in Nature, Medicine
and Industries
5. Harmful Effects of Some Microbes

Meaning of Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms are very small living things which are normally not visible to the naked eye but
can be seen with the help of a microscope.

Types of Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms include the following:
(i) All Viruses e.g. Polio virus, Smallpox virus, etc.
(ii) All bacteria e.g. Salmonella, Clostridium, Treponema, Escherichia coli, etc.
(iii) All protozoans e.g. Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, etc.
(iv) Some fungi e.g. Rhizopus (mould) and Yeast (e.g. Saccharomycetes).
(v) Some algae e.g. diatoms, dinoflagelletes, etc.
(vi) Blue-green algae e.g. Nostoc
Micro-organisms live everywhere, in water, air, soil, inside and outside of plants and animals
including human beings. There are many more microorganisms than visible plants and animals in
the world. They may have beneficial or harmful effects. Micro-organisms that cause disease are
referred to as pathogens and are usually parasitic.

Anthrax Bacteria
An electron micrograph shows a cluster of bacteria, Bacillus anthracis, in a capillary of a lung.
The bacteria cause anthrax, a disease in humans and animals that can result in death. Anthrax can
be cured when treated early with antibiotics.

Growth of Micro-organisms
Culturing is the growing of micro-organisms in prepared media in the laboratory. The prepared
medium is called the ‘culture medium’. Bacteria, fungi and algae grow easily in test-tubes, flasks
or Petri dishes of culture media. Virus on the other hand, can only grow and multiply inside
living cells, so they cannot be grown in a culture medium.
Micro-organisms are able to increase in size and multiply in number of cells. The growth of
micro-organisms is measured based on increase in population size rather than increase in cell
size. Under favourable conditions (food, adequate temperature and humidity) micro-
organisms reproduce asexually by binary fission. Generation time varies from species to
species e.g. rapidly growing species like Escherichia coli can divide every 30 minutes.
Measurement of the Growth of Micro-organisms
Two methods are used to measure the growth of micro-organisms:
(i) First Method: This involves inoculating a bacterial sample into a nutrient broth. As the
bacterial population increases, the clear liquid medium becomes cloudy/turbid. Increase in
turbidity indicates an increase in number of bacterial cells. Turbidity can be measured using a
spectrophotometer. Thus by measuring the turbidity of a bacterial culture in nutrient broth at
regular intervals, the growth of a bacterial population can be measured.
(ii) Second Method: This involves taking small samples of bacteria from a nutrient broth at
regular intervals of time and diluting the samples several times. Each diluted sample is then
inoculated onto a nutrient agar medium in a petri dish and incubated. The number of colonies
formed in each petri dish is counted and this indicates the number of living bacterial cells in the
diluted sample. From this, the actual number of bacteria in the original sample can be calculated.

EVALUATION

1. Mention five microorganisms.

2. How is the growth of microorganisms measured?
3. Describe two ways of growing microbes in the laboratory.
 Bacterium Showing
Flagella
Although many forms of bacteria are not capable of independent movement, species such as the
Salmonella bacterium pictured here can move by means of fine threadlike projections called
flagella. The arrangement of flagella across the surface of the bacterium differs from species to
species; they can be present at the ends of the bacterium or all across the body surface. Forward
movement is accomplished either by a tumbling motion or in a forward manner without
tumbling.

Beneficial Effects of Micro-organisms in Nature

(i) Bacteria in the large intestine of man synthesize the vitamin K that is needed.
(ii) Yeasts are used in baking and preparation of alcoholic drinks. Yeasts are an important source
of vitamin B.
(iii) Some bacteria are used in curdling of milk, brewing of wine and in butter and cheese
making.
(iv) It is used in the production of antibiotics e.g. penicillin from the mould called penicillium.
(v) Saprophytic micro-organisms decompose sewage into harmless inorganic compounds.
(vi) Most decomposers are micro-organisms and they help to maintain soil fertility.
(vii) Some bacteria living in the rumen of ruminants like sheep, goat, cattle help to digest
cellulose in their food (grasses/vegetation).
(viii) Micro-organisms help in maintaining some cycles in nature e.g. the nitrogen cycle and
carbon cycle. They also help in recycling phosphates and sulphate.

EVALUATION
Name two beneficial microorganisms and state their benefits to man.

Harmful Effects of Micro-organisms

(i) Most diseases in animals and plants are caused by micro-organisms especially bacteria,
viruses and protozoans.
(ii) Huge amounts of food are spoiled annually by saprophytic fungi and bacteria.
(iii) They also cause deterioration/damage to materials such as paper, wood, cotton, leather, etc.
(iv) Micro-organisms can also cause the death of plants and animals.
 Cholera Bacterium
An electron micrograph shows the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, which can cause cholera, a serious
infectious disease in humans. The bacterium produces a toxin that causes the small intestine to
secrete large amounts of fluid, leading to diarrhea, vomiting, muscle cramps, and sometimes
death. A vaccine made from dead bacteria offers partial protection.
Disease-causing Micro-Organisms
Micro-organisms are spread through the following:
(i) Air: Dust and water droplets in our air contain micro-organisms such as polio virus, measles
virus, pox virus, common cold virus, Pneumococci
(a bacteria), Pencillium (a fungus), etc.
(ii) Water: Bacteria found in water include Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Vibrio, Azotobacter,
Coliform micro-organisms (e.g. Escherichia coli, Vibro cholerae, Salmonella typhi), etc. Blue-
green algae found in water include Nostoc,Anabaena and Oscillatoria.Protists in water include
Chlamydomonas, Euglena,Amoeba, etc. Algae include Spirogyra, Volvox. Fungi include moulds
and mildews.
(iii) Food: Most micro-organisms in food get in through faeces, dirty utensils and equipment,
unhygienic habits and vectors like flies and cockroaches. Examples are Shigella sp, Salmonella
enteriditis, Aspergillus flavus, etc.
(iv) Animal vectors or carriers.
(v) Personal or direct skin contact with a sufferer.
Disease-causing micro-organisms can enter the body through body openings like the mouth, nose
or reproductive opening, through wounds, through bites of other animals and through blood
transfusions.
Some important diseases, their causative micro-organisms, mode of transmission, host and
symptoms are outlined in the following tables.

Air-borne Diseases

Mode of
Causative
Disease transmissio Host Major symptoms
organism
n
High fever,
Common
1. Virus Airborne Man headache running
cold
nose.
2. Chicken pox Pox virus Airborne Man Itchy skin rash
High fever, skin
Airborne
rashes,
Paramyxo- and
3. Measles Children headache, head
virus close
cold, cough, body
contact
pain.
Man,
High fever, difficult
4. Pneumonia Bacteria Air birds,
breathing and cough
pigs, cows
Myco
Persistent dry cough
 5. Tuberculosis bacterium Airborne, Man, cow and profuse sweating
tuberculosis food at night.
(bacterium)
Meningo High fever, headache,
6. Meningitis coccus Airborne Man vomiting and stiffness
(Bacterium) of the neck.

Streptococcus Bacteria
This scanning electron micrograph shows disease-causing Streptococcus bacteria, commonly
found in the human mouth, throat, respiratory tract, bloodstream, and wounds. Often airborne in
hospitals, schools, and other public places, Streptococcus bacteria are responsible for infections
such as strep throat, scarlet fever, and some types of pneumonia.

Food and Water-borne Diseases

Mode of
Disease Causative organism Host Major symptoms
transmission
High temperature,
Salmonella typhi Contaminated
1. Typhoid Man followed by
(bacteria) food and water
bloody diarrhea
Vibro cholerae Vomiting and
2. Cholera Food and water Man
(bacterium) diarrhea
Infected meat,
Food Salmonella sp. Poultry, eggs, milk Diarrhea and
3. Man
poisoning (bacteria) and vomiting
contaminated food
Entamoeba
Amoebic Contaminated food Abdominal pain,
4. histolytica Man
dysentery and water and diarrhoea
(protozoan)
Poliomyeliti High fever,
s Picornavirus Infected food and Childre headache
5.
(infantile (virus) water, direct contact n nausea, fits and
paralysis) stiffness of limbs
 Spirochete
Bacteria, included within the kingdom Prokaryotae, are single-celled organisms lacking a well-
defined internal cellular organization. The bacterium Leptospirilla ichterohemorrhagiae, pictured
here, exhibits the spirochete, or spiral, structure characteristic of many of the 1600 species of
bacteria.

Vector-borne Diseases
Causative Mode of
Disease Host Major symptoms
organism transmission
Bite of infected
Plasmodium sp. High fever, shivering
1. Malaria female Anopheles Man
(protozoan) and sweating
mosquito
Sleeping Fever, headache,
Trypanosom Man and
sickness sluggishness,
2. agambiense Tsetse fly bite domestic
(Trypanosomiasi drowsiness and
(protozoan) animals
s) un- controllable sleep
High fever,
headache,
backache followed
Bite of infected
3. Yellow fever Arbovirus Man by
Aedes mosquito
low body
temperature
and jaundice
Shivering fever,
Bite of infected cough
4. Plague Bacterium Man
Rat flea and difficult
breathing
Severe headache,
River blindness Onchocerca Bite of infected
5. Man high fever and
(onchocerciasis) volvulus black fly
gradual blindness

Diseases Spread by Contacts

Causative Mode of
Disease Host Major symptoms
organism transmission
Yellow patches on
Tinea Direct skin
1. Dermatophytes Man chest, neck, face
versicolor contact
and back
Itching, smelly
Direct skin
2. Athlete’s foot Fungi Man patches
contact
between toes
Inflamed urethra
burning sensation
during urination
and thick yellowish
Neisseria Sexual discharge in male.
 3. Gonorrhea gonorrhoea intercourse Man In females there may
(bacterium) be pain during
urination, redness
around the urinary
opening and vaginal
discharge.
A small painless
sore or chancre
on the penis or vulva.
Mild fever, skin
rashes,
mouth ulcers and
Treponema
Sexual aches
4. Syphilis pallidum Man
intercourse in lymph node
(bacterium)
regions.
It may lead to
abortion,
attack the brain and
cause blindness
and insanity
Susceptibility to all
Sexual intercourse,
microbial infections,
blood transfusion,
Human high fever, loss of
infected sharp
5. AIDS immunodeficiency Man weight, chronic
instruments,
virus (HIV) diarrhoea, skin rashes,
mother to
wasting away of
unborn child
muscles.

EVALUATION
1. Mention two disease causing microbes, state the diseases caused, the host, the mode of
transmission and the symptoms of the disease.
2. How do microorganisms gain access into the body?
3. Describe the stages involved in the growth of inoculated microorganisms (Graphical
illustration is important).
4. (a) What is a venereal disease? (b) Mention four venereal diseases (c) Outline five ways of
controlling venereal diseases.
5. Read up on Towards Better Health.

MICRO-ORGANISMS AND BETTER

HEALTH
CONTENT

1. Control of Harmful Micro-organisms

2. Vectors (i) Definition of Vectors (ii) Ways of Controlling
Mosquitoes (iii) Ways of Controlling Vectors
3. Student’s Health: Maintenance of Good Health

Control of Harmful Micro-organisms

Better health can be achieved basically by controlling disease-causing micro-organisms and their
animal vectors and also by improving health facilities.
Micro-organisms can be controlled in the following ways:

1. Use of High Temperature: This involves sterilization by

boiling, autoclaving or heating of food and other products
to kill disease causing organisms.
2. Preserving Food by Salting: This is the application of salt
in food to kill micro- organisms or render them inactive
3. Uses of Drugs/Antibiotics: Many diseases can be
 controlled through the use of drugs and antibiotics in order
to kill the causative micro- organisms. Fansid is used to kill
malaria.
4. Immunization or Rascination: Immunization is the
process by which a healthy person is inoculated with a
preparation of a mild form of the pathogen.
5. Sterilization by Boiling: Sterilization by boiling is done to
kill disease-causing micro-organisms (pathogens) on the
objects.
6. Use of Antiseptics: These are chemicals that can kill or
inhabit the growth of pathogenic micro-organisms. They
are used on cuts, abrasions and wounds on the skin to
prevent infection by micro-organisms. Examples of
antiseptics are; hydrogen peroxide, Dettol, chlorine water
etc.
7. Proper Covering of Food Always: Food should be
covered always to prevent contact with vectors of diseases.
8. Quarantine Service: Quarantine service or isolation of
infected person or animal for evidence of a disease before
he/she or it mixes with general population.
9. Promoting Health Education: This is making people
aware and conscious of ways micro-organisms are
transmitted and how to prevent them.
10. Personal Hygiene: This includes washing of hand before
eating and after eating, after defecating, before preparation
of food etc. these practices can help check the spread of
pathogenic micro-organisms.
11. Use of Disinfectants: Disinfectants like izal, Lysol etc.
may lead to prevent infections.
12. Destruction of Vectors: Vectors such as mosquitoes,
black flies etc. can be destroyed to prevent the spread of
diseases they cause.
13. Use of ultra-violet radiation to kill bacteria.
Vectors
Non-living agents that carry micro-organisms from one place to another include air, water and
food.
Living agents that carry micro-organisms from place to place are animals. These animals that
carry pathogenic (disease causing) micro-organisms are known as vectors.
Examples of vectors are cockroaches, fleas, mosquitoes, tsetse-flies, black flies, house flies, bed-
bugs, ticks, rats, dogs, cats, etc. Vectors may transmit micro-organisms from place to place or
person to person either mechanically or biologically.
(a) Mechanical Method: The vectors carry pathogens on various parts of their bodies e.g. legs,
wings, mouthparts, hairs, etc. The pathogens do not grow or multiply on the body of the vectors.
Pathogens carried in this way include Salmonella typhi, Vibro cholerae and Entamoeba
histolytica.
(b) Biological Method: The vector in this case becomes infected with the pathogen when it
feeds on the body fluid of an infected person or animal. The pathogen develops and multiplies in
the body of the vector which then infects a healthy person when it goes to feed. Thus part of the
pathogen’s life cycle takes place in the body of the vector. Examples of such vectors and the
pathogen they carry are;
(i) Anopheles mosquito (female) carries plasmodium (protozoan) that causes malaria.
(ii) Tsetse fly carries Trypanosome (protozoan) which causes sleeping sickness
(Trypanosomiasis).
(iii) Aedes mosquito carries a virus that causes yellow fever/dengue fever.

Control of Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes can be controlled in the following ways:

1. Draining of swamps: This is done to destroy the breeding

ground of mosquitoes.
2. Clearing bushes around houses: This reduces hiding places
for the adult mosquitoes.
3. Sleeping in rooms protected by mosquito nets: This help to
check the occurrence of mosquito bites.
4. Spraying oil in stagnant water: This is to reduce the surface
tension of water and prevent larval stages from breathing.
5. Using insect repellants for the body
 6. Use of drugs i.e. to cure/control malaria fever e.g.
chloroquine
7. Burying broken pots and empty cans
Control of Vectors
Vectors can be controlled by;

1. Killing the vectors e.g. by spraying with insecticides, use

of traps and poisons for rats, etc.
2. Use of larvicides to kill larval stages.
3. Clearing bushes around houses.
4. Destruction of breeding spots e.g. stagnant water should
be drained to prevent mosquitoes from breeding.
5. Use of drugs to kill the micro-organism in the host.
6. Keeping the environment clean etc.
Student’s Health: Maintenance of Good Health
Maintaining the health of students and the people in a community is the responsibility of the
individuals, the community, the government and health organization. Ways of maintaining good
public health include;

1. Proper observance of personal hygiene. Keep yourself and

your environment clean.
2. Proper refuse disposal e.g. burning in incinerators, burying
in sanitary landfills, etc.
3. Proper sewage disposal e.g. use of pit toilets and water-
closet toilets.
4. Protection of water supply by boiling, filtration, addition of
chlorine, storage in clean containers, etc.
5. Protection of food by keeping them in clean containers,
boiling or cooking properly before eating, washing of
fruits, vegetables and hands before eating, etc.
6. Health organizations such as United Nations Children’s
Education Fund (UNICEF), World Health Organization
(WHO), International Red Cross Society, etc. help to
maintain the health of people in a country through their
corporate activities.
EVALUATION
1. Define the term ‘vector’
2. Enumerate four vectors, the pathogens they carry and the
diseases caused by these pathogens
3. State three ways by which vectors can be controlled
Ways of Maintaining Good Health in the Community
1. Refuse Disposal: Refuse is solid waste materials discharged through human activities from
homes and industries into the environment. When these are dumped recklessly, they create bad
odour and provide breeding ground for vectors and pathogens.
Refuse disposal can be done through:
(i) Provision of dust bin in strategic locations.
(ii) Burning refuse in incinerators.
(iii) Dumping them in isolated areas far from human inhabitation.
(iv) Burying in a sanitary land fill.
2. Sewage Disposal: These are liquid waste materials discharged from laundries, kitchens,
toilets, bathrooms etc.
Sewage disposal can be done through:
(i) Use of pit toilets where faeces and urine are passed into deep pits.
(ii) Use of septic tanks where water is used to flush faeces and urine into a big tank dug in the
ground.
(iii) Community treatment process where sewage from various homes are collected and treated
before being discharged into oceans and rivers.
3. Protection of water: Water should be protected to check with incidents of water-borne
diseases like cholera, salmonellosis, etc.
This can be done by:
Adding alum to water.
(i) Chlorination: Adding of chlorine water.
(ii) Storing water in clean containers.
(iii) Filtering of water on settling/coding.
4. Protection of food: Both raw and cooked food should be kept properly to avoid the outbreak
of food poisoning. This can be achieved by:
(i) Refrigeration: Keeping food in refrigerators.
(ii) Proper cooking/boiling of food.
(iii) Washing of hands before and after eating.
(iv) There should be inspection of food meant for public consumption.
(v) Preservation of food by canning.
(vi) Avoid expression of food to flies and other micro-organisms.
(vii) Keep the environment where food is prepared clean.
5. Control of diseases: Individuals can control disease by:
(i) Living in a clean environment.
(ii) Eating good and balanced diet.
(iii) Wearing good and clean clothes.
(iv) Cleaning latrines and urinals with disinfectants.
(v) Exercising regularly.
(vi) Avoiding drug abuse.
(vii) Immunization and vaccination.
6. Health Organizations: These are corporate (international and local) bodies concerned with
the maintenance of good health of the people. International health organizations include:
(i) WHO – World Health Organization.
(ii) UNICEF – United Nations International Children Emergency Fund.
(iii) NMA – Nigeria Medical Association.
(iv) Red Cross Society.
Roles of Health Organizations

World Health Organization (WHO)

This is a specialized division of the United Nations established in 1948 with its headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland. Its major aim is to improve the health of the people in all the countries of
the world.

Functions of the World Health Organization (WHO)

1. It helps to set and recommend safe standard for drugs.
2. It helps in maternal and children health care.
3. It assists national health organizations in the control of
diseases and vectors of diseases.
 4. It publishes medical journals.
5. It helps to provide drugs and vaccines in case of
emergency.
6. It co-ordinates research programmes in all fields of health
and makes the result known to all member nations.
United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
The UNICEF, another special agency of the United Nations was set up to improve the health and
welfare of the children all over the world.

Functions of the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund

(UNICEF)
1. To provide for the emergency needs of children in
devastated areas.
2. To improve the nutrition of under nourished children.
3. To supply vaccines or equipment to prevent or control
diseases that specifically affects children such as whooping
cough, diphtheria, poliomyelitis etc.
4. To provide children’s clothing and other needs.
International Red Cross Society
This is concerned with the alleviation of human suffering and the promotion of public health. It
was established in the year 1863 in Geneva, Switzerland composed of 25 Swiss citizens who
later grew to all around the world.

Functions of the International Red Cross Society

1. In times of war
2. They take proper care of the injured
3. They also provide welfare for the prisoners of war
4. They provide transport for the evacuation of refugees
5. In Time of Peace.
6. They provide the general first-aid to patients.
7. They maintain maternal and child welfare clinics.
8. They provide help to victims of natural disasters such as
earthquake, floods, fire etc.
Nigeria Medical Association (NMA)
This is a national body concerned with the maintenance of good health within Nigeria.

Functions of the Nigeria Medical Association (NMA)

1. Advising the government on how to improve the health
status of the people.
2. Alerting the nation where there is an outbreak of diseases.
3. Carrying out research into ways of preventing and
controlling diseases.
4. Monitoring the recruitment of well-trained doctors in
 hospitals.
EVALUATION
1. Malaria is one of the most common diseases in the tropics. Explain clearly, how a bite from a
mosquito can cause malaria.
2. Describe the functions of the following health organizations
(a) World Health Organization.
(b) United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
(c) International Red Cross
3. Read on Marine Habitat.