LECTURE ON
MAGNETISM
PRESENTED BY
SUMON DEB NATH
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
KHULNA UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
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Magnetism
Dipole:
Dipole is a pair of equal and oppositely charged or magnetized poles separated by a distance.
Electric dipoles: Magnetic dipoles:
Electrons circulating around atomic nuclei, electrons spinning on their axes, and rotating
positively charged atomic nuclei all are magnetic dipoles. Magnetic compass needles and bar
magnets is examples of macroscopic magnetic dipoles. 2
Magnetization/Magnetic intensity:
The total magnetic moment per unit volume is called magnetization.
Mathematically,
Magnetic moment:
The magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet or other object that produces a magnetic field is
called magnetic moment.
Magnetic induction( ):
Magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force (emf) across an electrical conductor
in a changing magnetic field.
The magnetic induction consists of two contributors:
(i) From the magnetic field
(ii) From the magnetization
The magnetic induction is simply the vector of these:
Here is generated by electrical currents outside the materials either from a solenoid or electromagnets or
permanent magnet. is generated by the resultant spin and orbital angular momentum of electrons with solids. 3
Faraday’s law
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Origin of Magnetism
The origins of magnetism are:
❑ moving electric charges (e.g. atomic currents due to orbiting electrons).
❑ fundamental magnetic moments of elementary particles (spin).
Classification of Magnetic Materials
1) Diamagnetism
2) Paramagnetism
3) Ferromagnetism
4) Antiferromagnetism
5) Ferrimagnetisms
6) Metamagnetism 5
1. Diamagnetism
❑ Diamagnetism was first discovered by Anton Brugmans in 1778 when he observed
that bismuth was repelled by magnetic fields.
❑ In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that
every materials or substances responded either repelled or attracted to an applied magnetic field.
❑ If it is repelled, it is said to be diamagnetic substances.
❑ Bi, Zn, Pb, Cu, Ag etc are diamagnetic substances.
❑ Magnetic susceptibility, 𝜒 < 0 (negative magnetic susceptibility) which is independent of
temperature.
❑ Magnetic permeability , μ <1 Or, B/ H <1 Or, B < H. That means the magnetic flux lines
present in the substances is less than the magnetic flux lines present outside it.
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2. Paramagnetism
❑ In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that
every materials or substances responded to an applied magnetic field.
❑ If it is attracted to an applied magnetic field then it is said to be paramagnetic substances.
❑ Al, Na, Mn, Cr etc are paramagnetic substances.
❑ Magnetic susceptibility, 0< 𝜒 < 1.
❑ Magnetic permeability , μ >1 Or, B/ H >1 Or, B >H.
❑At finite temperature, the spins of the atoms or ions are thermally agitated and take
random orientation.
❑ After applying the magnetic field, the average orientation of the spins are slightly changed
so as to produce weak induced magnetization parallel to the applied field.
❑ In this case, 𝜒 ∝ 1/T Or, 𝜒 = C/T where C is the Curie constant.
i.e. Magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.
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3. Ferromagnetism
❑ The ferromagnetism (FM) substances posses a resultant magnetic moment even in the absence
of the applied magnetic field. This magnetization is known as spontaneous magnetization.
❑ Fe, Co, Ni, and alloys like Heusher alloy [Cu (64%) + Mn (24%) + Al (12%)] etc are FM
substances.
❑ Magnetic susceptibility is very high . i.e. 𝜒 >> 1.
❑ Magnetic permeability is very high . i.e. , μ >>1 Or, B/ H >>1 Or, B >>H.
❑ In FM substances, the spins are aligned parallel to one another as a result of strong
positive interaction acting between the neighboring atoms.
❑ When the temperature increases, the arrangement of the spins is disturbed by thermal
agitation which gives a temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization.
❑ But above the FM transition temperature known as Curie temperature, TC , the order in
the crystal exists no more and the substances becomes paramagnetic. This is because thermal
energy is large enough to overcome the cooperative ordering of the magnetic moments.
❑ Also above the Curie temperature, 𝜒 ∝ 1/(T- θ) Or, 𝜒 =C/(T- θ) where θ is the Weiss
constant.
This is theinCurie-Weiss
Curie temperature: The transition temperature law. become paramagnetic …
which FM substances 8
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4. Antiferromagnetism
❑ In 1936 French physicist, Louis Neel gave the first explanations of
antiferromagnetism.
❑The antiferromagnetism (AFM) is a weak magnetism which is similar to
paramagnetism in the sense of exhibiting a small positive magnetic
susceptibility. i.e. 0<𝜒 <1.
❑Certain metals and alloys in addition to some ionic solids. e.g. Cr, Feo ,
MnO
❑ Below TN , antiparallel spin arrangement is established in which
the plus and minus spins completely cancel each other.
❑ In AFM, 𝜒 increase with the increase in temperature comparing the
usual paramagnetic behavior.
❑ But above TN , the spin arrangement become random so that 𝜒 now
decrease with the increase in temperature and the substance become
paramagnetic.
❑ Neel Temperature : This spontaneous antiparallel coupling of atomic magnets is 10
disrupted by heating and disappears entirely above a certain temperature, is called Neel
temperature. The Neel temperature for manganese oxide, for example, is 122 K.
5. Ferrimagnetism
❑ Louis Neel proposed the term ferrimagnetism to describe the magnetism of ferrites.
e.g. Magnetic garnets, magnetite (Fe3O4).
Ferrimagnetic Ordering Magnetic garnets Magnetite (Fe3O4)
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❑ As the temperature increases, the arrangement of the spins distributed by the thermal
agitation which is accompanied by the decrease of the spontaneous magnetization, Ms .
❑ At TN, the arrangement of the spins become random and MS vanishes.
❑ Above TN , the substance exhibits paramagnetism and 𝜒 decrease with the increase of
temperature. So in the 1/ 𝜒 versus T , the linear extrapolation of the high temperature
region curve usually interrupt the temperature axis as its negative site. 12
6. Metamagnetism
❑ Becquerel and Van der Handle prposed the term metamagnetsm.
❑ It is a sudden increase in the magnetization of a material with a small change in an externally
applied magnetic field
❑ The phenomenon of transition of ferromagnetism to antiferromagnetism or vice-versa is
called metamagnetism.
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B-H CURVE or HYSTERESIS LOOP
Analysis:
1) When a magnetic field is applied on a ferromagnetic material, it
shows a non linear rise flux density lags behind the applied
external field. The material reached saturation as all the domains
align parallel to the applied field.
2) On removing the applied field, some of the domains retain the
alignment which produced residual magnetism. This residual
magnetic field is called as retentivity.
3) Now an external magnetic field is applied in opposite direction
so that the residual magnetism gets reduced to zero. This value of
the field is called as coercitivity that indicates the hardness or
softness of the material towards magnetization. Hard Materials
like steel have high value while Soft materials like soft iron have
low value of corecitivity.
4) The applied magnetic field strength is further increased in the
reverse direction till again saturation is reached by the alignment of
all the domains along the direction of the applied magnetic field H.
5) The process of reducing the applied field to zero is followed and
again the applied field is increased in forward direction. 14
Finally, Magnetic Hysteresis Loop or B-H Loop is obtained.
Russell – Saunders (L-S) coupling
The coupling between the orbital angular momentum and spin angular momentum of individual
electrons is called L-S coupling.
The spin vector si of the ith electron, the orbital vector li of the ith
electron and SJ, LJ for the Jth electron is considered.
Among these interaction, it often happens that the interaction
between si and li or those between SJ and LJ are small compared to
the interaction between si, LJ and SJ and li.
Then the spin vector si of the individual electrons (i= 1, 2, 3…) are
coupled through the spin interaction to given the
s = s1+ s2+ s3+ s4+ s5+ …………. +sn
Similarly
Orbital vector li of the individual electrons (i= 1, 2, 3…) are coupled
through the orbital interaction to given the 15
l = l1+ l2+ l3+ l4+ l5+ …………. + ln
Now,
j = (l1+ l2+ l3+ l4+ l5+ …………. + ln) + (s1 + s2 + s3 + s4 + s5 + …………. +sn)
= (l1 + s1) + (l2 + s2) + (l3 + s3) + (l4 + s4) + (l5 + s5) + ………………+ (ln + sn)
= J1+ J2+ J3+ J4+ J5+ ………….+ Jn
=
Here,
j =2s + 1 when l>s
j= 2l + 1 when l<s
J-J coupling:
A type of coupling occurring between electrons in atoms and nucleons in nuclei, in which the
energies associated with the spin-orbit interactions are much higher than the energies associated
with electrostatic repulsion.
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g-factor
The orbital magnetic moment is given by, The spin magnetic moment is given by,
where, gl is the orbital g-factor =1 where, gs is the spin g-factor =2
and μB is the Bohr Magneton =eђ/2m and μB is the Bohr Magneton =eђ/2m
we know, we know,
From equation (1) and (2) we get, From equation (4) and (5) we get,
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Now,
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From equation (9) we get,
Here,
We know,
This is the Lande g-factor.
Problem:
1. If l=1 and s=1/2 then find j and gj 19
2. If l=2 and s=3/2 then find j and gj
Quantum theory of paramagnetism:
We
know, The energy level of the system in the magnetic field is:
For a single spin,
From equation (3) we get,
So energy difference between two level =
The splitting is shown in Figure (1).
If a system has only two levels, the equilibrium populations are:
{Boltzmann’s distribution} Where,
N1 and N2 are the populations of the lower and upper levels respectively.
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Total populations, N = N1 + N2
Figure 1 The fractional populations are plotted in Figure 2.
The resultant magnetization for N per unit volume,
If x <<1 then
and we have from equation (8)
Figure 2
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Now, From equation (9) we get,
From equation (10) we get,
Home Work
Classical theory of paramagnetic
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( Kittel Book)
Spectroscopic Notation
In order to describe the quantum state of any atom using the total angular momentum quantum
number, we can use a method known as the spectroscopic notation.
The spectroscopic notation utilizes three quantum numbers:
(i) Spin quantum number (s):
(ii) Orbital quantum number: l Letters
0 s
1 p
2 d
3 f
4 g
5 h
(iii) Total angular momentum quantum number (j):
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Spectroscopic Notation:
1 s2 ↑↓ ms= +½, - ½
j= l + s= 0
ml= 0
2p6 ↑↓ ms= +½, +½,+½
↑↓ -½, -½,-½ j= l + s= 0
↑↓ ml= +1, 0, -1
+1, 0, -1
3 d10 ↑↓ ms= +½, +½,+½,+½,+½,
↑↓ -½, -½, -½ , -½ ,-½
↑↓ ml= +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, j= l + s= 0
↑↓ +2, +1, 0, -1, -2 24
↑↓
(i)
1 s1 ↑ ms= +½ j= l + s= +½
ml= 0
(2)
2p3 ↑ ms= +½, +½,+½ j= l + s= 3/2
↑
↑ ml= +1, 0, -1
(3)
3p6 ↑↓ ms= +½, +½,+½ j= l + s= 0
↑↓ -½, -½,-½
↑↓ ml= +1, 0, -1
+1, 0, -1
(4 )
4s1 ↑ ms= +½ j= l + s= +½
ml =0
(5 )
5 s1 ↑ ms= +½ j= l + s= +½
ml= 0
Home Work : Find the spectroscopic notation of first 50 elements in periodic table. 25
Quiz – 15 Minutes
1. Draw the diagram of the spectral series of hydrogen atom.
2. Find the frequency of Lβ line of Balmer series.
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Quiz – 15 Minutes
1. Distinguish between spin quantization and space quantization.
2. For the principle quantum number n=2, find the possible
combinations of the total angular momentum quantum number.
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Thanks for watching…
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