Magnetic materials

Introduction
➢ Magnetism arises from the Magnetic Moment or Magnetic dipole of
Magnetic Materials.
Magnetic materials: The materials which reveals the phenomenon of
magnetism are called magnetic materials.
→ All materials, i.e., metals, semiconductors and insulators reveal the
phenomenon of magnetism.
→ They are capable of creating self magnetic field in the presence of external
magnetic field.
→ The magnetic materials play an important role in modern technology as
they are frequently used in industrial electronics, computer industry etc.

➢ The magnetism of materials mainly arises from the magnetic moment or

magnetic dipole of the magnetic materials.

➢ Magnetic moment arises due to following reasons:

 When the electrons revolves around the nucleus Orbital magnetic moment
arises, similarly when the electron spins, spin Magnetic moment arises.
Introduction

 The permanent Magnetic Moments can arise due to the

1.The orbital magnetic moment of the electrons
2.The spin magnetic moment of the electrons and
3.The spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

Magnetization:
• Magnetization refers to the process of converting a non-
magnetic material into a Magnetic material.
• The intensity of Magnetization is directly related to the applied
field H.


Relation between μ and χ: Classification of magnetic
materials
❑ There are nearly 11 types of magnetic
materials.

▪ On the basis of permeability (or)

susceptibility magnetic materials are
classified in to three categories namely
i) Dia ii) Para iii) Ferro

▪ Depending on the alignment of magnetic

moments within the materials, these are
further classified into five important
groups namely
i) Dia magnetic material
ii) Para magnetic material
iii) Ferro magnetic material
iv) Anti-ferro magnetic material
v) Ferri magnetic material
❑ Based on strength magnetic materials are classified into
two categories, namely soft magnetic materials and hard
magnetic materials.

❖ Soft magnetic materials are used in ac applications, since

they are easily magnetized and demagnetized.

❖ Hard magnetic materials are used in producing permanent

magnets. The y require high magnetic field, to magnetize and to
demagnetized.
Dia magnetic materials
❑ On placing in an external magnetic field, the materials which acquire
feeble magnetism in the direction opposite to that of the applied field
are called ‘diamagnetic materials’.

➢ This property is found in the substances whose outer most orbit has
an even number of electrons.

➢ Since the electrons have spins opposite to each other, the net
magnetic moment of each atom is zero.

➢ If these materials are brought close to the pole of a powerful

electromagnet they are repelled away from the magnet.

➢ The magnetism of diamagnetic materials is called diamagnetism.

➢ Ex. Bi, Zn, gold, Silver, Lead, Water etc.

Dia magnetic materials

Propertiers

Para magnetic materials
❑ On placing in an external magnetic field, the materials which acquire
feeble magnetism in the direction of the applied field are called
‘paramagnetic materials’.

➢ This property is found in the substances whose outer most orbit has
an odd number of electrons.

➢ The source of Para magnetism is the permanent magnetic moment

possessed by the atoms of paramagnetic material.

➢ If these materials are brought close to the pole of a powerful

electromagnet, they are get attracted towards the magnet.

➢ The magnetism of paramagnetic materials is called para magnetism.

➢ Ex. Al, Pt, Mn, Cu, liquid oxygen etc.
Para magnetic materials

Propertiers

Ferromagnetic material
❑ On placing in an external magnetic field, the materials which
acquire strong magnetism in the direction of the applied field are
called ‘ferromagnetic materials’.

➢ Spins are aligned parallel.

➢ The tendency for parallel alignment of the electron spins is due to

quantum mechanical exchange forces..

➢ If these materials are brought close to the pole of a powerful

electromagnet, they are strongly attracted towards the magnet.

➢ The magnetism of ferromagnetic materials is called ferromagnetism.

➢ Ex. Ir0n, Nickel, Cobalt etc.

Ferro magnetic material

Properties

Bin = Bout
Normal material

Bin > Bout

Ferromagnetic
material

Ferromagnetic material
Anti-ferro magnetic materials
In certain materials when the distance between the interacting atoms is
small, the exchange forces produce a tendency for anti parallel alignment of
electron spins of neighbouring atoms. This kind of interaction is
encountered in antiferromagentic and ferrimagnetic materials.

Antiferromagnetic materials: The materials in which the spin alignment

of the neighbouring ions are equal and opposite in orientation are known as
‘antiferro magnetic materials’ and their magnetism is called antiferro
magnetism.

These are crystalline materials. The elements Mn, Cr exhibit

antiferromagnetism at room temperature.

In these materials the net magnetic moment is zero.

If these materials are placed in an external field they are feebly magnetized
in the direction of the applied field.

Ex. MnO, FeO, CaO, NiO, etc.

Anti-ferro magnetic materials

Properties Anti-ferromagnetic

Anti-ferromagnetic material
Ferrimagnetic materials
The materials which are having anti parallel spins of different magnitudes are
called ‘ferrimagnetic materials’.
These are ceramic materials.

Ex. Ferrous ferrite and Nickel ferrite.

Properties
➢ These materials are having positive and high
susceptibility (χ).
➢ They posses net magnetic moment.
➢ χ depends on temperature.

➢ Spin alignment:

In these materials the magnetic moment disappears above Curie temperature

(Tc). Tc analogous to Neel temperature.
Above Tc thermal energy randomizes the individual magnetic moments and the
material becomes paramagnetic.
Weiss theory (or) Molecular field theory on ferromagnetism

This is called Curie-Weiss law

and θ is called Curie temperature
 When T= θ, χ → ∞ and for temperatures less than θ, the relation does
not signify any meaning. This means, there exists a spontaneous magnetization
even in the absence of external magnetic field. The material is ferromagnetic
below Curie temperature ‘θ’, and becomes paramagnetic above Curie
temperature. Thermal agitation opposes the tendency of Weiss molecular field
to align the molecular magnets. But below Curie temperature Weiss field
energy overcomes the thermal energy. Consequently alignment of most
molecular magnets results giving rise to magnetization of the material even in
the absence of applied field- the so called phenomenon of spontaneous
magnetization.
Temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization

Referring the experimental curve, when T =

0, I/Is = 1. That is magnetization is maximum. Here I=
spontaneous magnetization and Is = saturation
magnetization. When T = θ, I/Is = 0 and the
spontaneous magnetization vanishes.

Explanation:
When the temperature is low, Weiss field overcomes the thermal energy and at
T = 0 gives rise to maximum magnetization. Burt as the temperature increase thermal
energy increase which randomizes more and more of the parallel spins and at Curie
temperature, the parallel alignment of all spins vanishes resulting in the zero value of
spontaneous magnetization. The substance then becomes paramagnetic.
Temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization

Referring the experimental curve, when T =

0, I/Is = 1. That is magnetization is maximum. Here I=
spontaneous magnetization and Is = saturation
magnetization. When T = θ, I/Is = 0 and the
spontaneous magnetization vanishes.

Explanation:
When the temperature is low, Weiss field overcomes the thermal energy and at
T = 0 gives rise to maximum magnetization. Burt as the temperature increase thermal
energy increase which randomizes more and more of the parallel spins and at Curie
temperature, the parallel alignment of all spins vanishes resulting in the zero value of
spontaneous magnetization. The substance then becomes paramagnetic.
Domain theory of ferromagnetism
Weiss proposed the concept of Domains in 1907 to explain the hysteresis effects
observed in Ferromagnetic materials as well a to explain the properties of
Ferromagnetic materials.

Domain: A small region in a ferro or ferri-magnetic material where all the

magnetic moments are aligned in the same direction is called a ‘domain’.

▪ So ferromagnetic material is divided up into small regions called domains, each

of which is at all times completely magnetized.

▪ The direction magnetization however varies from domain to domain and thus
the net macroscopic magnetization is zero in a virgin specimen in the absence of
external magnetic field.

▪ But when the ferromagnetic material is in the magnetic field, in the initial stages
of magnetization in the material, the domains having moments parallel to the
magnetic field increases in area; in the final saturation stage the other domains
are rotated parallel to the field.

▪ Similarly, if we demagnetize the material the regular domain arrangement is

changed and it is different from the original state. This creates hysteresis in the
ferromagnetic substances.
Based on the domain theory we can explain the following:
1) If a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece will be a magnet with a north
and a south pole. This is because the domains continue to remain in broken
pieces.

2) A magnet heated or roughly handled tends to lose its magnetism. This is

because the alignment of the domain in the magnet is likely to be disturbed
during heating and rough handling. Hence magnetism is reduced or lost.

3) Domains of soft iron are easily rotated with a comparatively small

magnetizing force and hence they are very easily magnetized or
demagnetized. In the case of steel a large force is required for rotating the
domains which explains the high retentivity of the material.

4) A specimen when magnetized suddenly experiences a slight change in the

length which is due to rearrangement of domains inside. This is called
magnetostriction.
Processes of domain magnetization
❖ There are mainly two possible ways to align a random domain structure by
applying an external magnetic field.
1) Domain wall displacement: When applied field is weak , the domains
which are in the direction of applied field increase in area i.e., domain wall
displaces from original position. Hence it posses some magnetic moment
(Fig b).
2) Domain rotation: When the applied field is strong, the domain which are
not in the direction of applied field completely rotates along the direction
of applied field resulting net magnetic moment (Fig. c).

(b) (c)
(a)
Types energy involved in the process of domain growth
❑ Four types of energy involved in the process of domain growth.
1. Exchange energy
2. Crystal anisotropy energy
3. Magnetostatic energy
4. Magnetostrictive energy

1. Exchange energy: It is the energy associated with the quantum mechanical

coupling that aligns the individual atomic dipoles with in a single domain. It
arises from interaction of electron spins. It depends upon the interatomic
distance.
2. Crystal anisotropy energy: Crystal anisotropy energy arises from the
difference of energy required for magnetization along any two different
directions in a single crystal.
▪ Thus the energy required for magnetization is a function of crystal
orientation.
▪ This energy is very important in determining the character of domain
boundary.
Example: The difference in the energy between the hard (111) and easy (100)
directions of BCC iron is about 1.4 x 104 J/m3 i.e., the excess work done in
magnetizing a specimen to saturation in (111) direction compared to (100)
direction is about 1.4 x 104 J/m3 and this is the anisotropic energy of iron. In
FCC Nickel the reverse is true i.e., (111) is easy direction and (100) is hard
direction.
→

→
BCC Iron FCC Nickel

H→ H→
Hard and easy directions for magnetization

Domain wall energy (Bloch wall energy): It is the some of contributions

from the exchange and crystal anisotropy energies in the domain wall
region.

The boundary between two domains is known as ‘Bloch wall’.

3. Magnetostatic energy: This energy arises due to the presence of resultant dipole
moment in the material even in the absence of external magnetic field.
This energy is favourable or unfavourable for domain growth if the magnetic
moment present in the material is along the direction of magnetisation or not.
4. Magnetostrictive energy: This energy arises due to the mechanical stresses
generated by magnetostriction in the domains.
This energy will effect the growth of domains.

Magnetostriction:
Reversible domain: If we apply a small external field on the ferromagnetic
specimen, the domain wall is displaced slightly away from the minimum energy. If the
field is removed the domain wall returns to the original position. This is known as
reversible domain.
Irreversible domain: If we apply a large external field on the ferromagnetic
specimen, the domain shifts to a more distant position. If the field is removed the
domain wall unable to return to its initial position. This is known as irreversible
domain.
▪ If the material is free from strains and inclusions, a small external field is required to
produce domain wall displacement and it is called ;soft magnetic material’.
▪ If the material has strains and inclusions, a high external field is required to produce
domain wall displacement and it is called ‘hard magnetic material’.

Hysteresis
❑ The lag of magnetization or magnetic induction behind the magnetizing field
referred as hysteresis.

❑ The irreversible B-H characteristics of ferromagnetic materials is known as

‘hysteresis’.
Explanation of Hysteresis curve on the basis of domain theory
• The hysteresis loop ‘ABCDEA’ is a curve showing the change in magnetic induction
of ferromagnetic material to which an external field is applied. When the field is
applied the domains which are in the direction of applied magnetic field or at a small
angle with the applied field increase in area i.e., domain wall displacement takes place.
Now if the field is removed domain wall returns to the initial position. So initially (OP)
the magnetization of the substance is due to the reversible domain wall displacement.
When the applied field is large B A
the domain wall shifts to more distant
position. If the field is reduced to zero the
domain wall unable to return to its initial Q
position. There fore the steeper part (PQ) Br
of the magnetization curve is due to larger,
irreversible domain wall displacements.
B P E
When the applied field
increased further, the domains which are H
nor in the direction of applied field
-Hs Hc O Hs
rotates along the direction of applied
field. So above the knee of the curve (QA)
magnetization is due to the domain
rotation. Such process is rather difficult
and the increase in magnetization is D
relatively slow.
C
 When the applied field is reduced, there is a little change in the domain
structure so that the magnetic induction or magnetization remains quite high, until
high reverse fields are applied. Further even when the external field is zero, there is a
residual magnetization in the specimen and that can be destroyed by applying a
high reverse field. Thus the reversible and irreversible domain wall movements give
rise to hysteresis in the ferromagnetic materials.
Residual magnetization (or) Retentivity: The magnetic induction retained by the
specimen when the magnetizing field is reduced from saturation value to zero is known
as ‘Residual magnetization (or) retentivity’.
Coercivity (or) Coercive force: The magnitude of the demagnetizing field required to
reduce the residual magnetism to zero is known as ‘Coercivity (or) Coercive force’.
Hysteresis loss: The loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through a cycle of
magnetization is known as ‘Hysteresis loss’.
Hysteresis loss is represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
Barkhaussen effect:
E
Barkhaussen effect refers to the variation of
the energy of the domain walls with respect to the
position of the walls and this variation clearly
represents an impediment to its motion or a restoring
force which opposes the pressure due to the applied
field. As shown in figure the energy of the domain walls x
is a function of their position. x1 x2 x3
Domain wall motion

Barkhausen effect
 Soft and Hard magnetic materials
Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

1. The magnetic materials which can be easily 1. The magnetic materials which cannot be
magnetized and demagnetized are known easily magnetized and demagnetized are
as ‘soft magnetic materials’. known as ‘hard magnetic materials’.

1. They have small hysteresis loss due to 2. They have large hysteresis loss due to large
small hysteresis loop area. hysteresis loop area.

2. These materials have large values for 3. These materials have small values for Steel (Hard)
permeability and susceptibility. permeability and susceptibility.

3. The coercivity and retentivity are small. 4. The coercivity and retentivity are large.

4. These materials are free from irregularities 5. In these materials irregularities like
like strains or impurities. Its magnetostatic mechanical strains will be more.Its
energy is very small. magnetostatic energy is large.

6. These are used to produce permanent

5. These are used in electro-magnetic
magnets. Permanent magnets are used in
machinery and in transformer cores. These
magnetic detectors, microphones, flux
are used in switching circuits, microwave
meters, voltage regulators and magnetic
isolator sand shift registers.
separators.
Soft Iron

6. In these materials domain wall movement 7. In these materials domain wall movement is
is easy. difficult.
Ferrites
➢ Ferrites are modified structures of iron with no carbon and are good examples of
ferrimagnetism.
➢ They are made from ceramic ferromagnetic compounds.
➢ Mechanically it has pure iron character.
➢ It has low tensile strength and it is brittle, soft and non machinable one.
➢ In these all valence electrons are tied up by ionic bonding and these are bad
conductors.
➢ Ferrites are manufactured by powder metallurgical process. (Mixing, compacting
and sintering at high temperature followed by age hardening in magnetic fields.)
++ +++
➢ The general formulae is XFe2O4/X Fe2 O4.
X++ (Mn, Mg, Zn, Fe, Ni, Co) stands for a suitable divalent metal ion, Fe2+++ is
the trivalent ferric ion.
➢ If we insert Ni++ in place of X++ then it is called Nickel ferrite.
➢ If we insert Fe++ in place of X++ it is called Ferrous ferrite.
FeFe2O4/Fe3O4
➢ In more complicated cases the X++ ion positions in the crystal are shared between
more than one kind of divalent cations and the result is a ‘mixed ferrite’. These are
popular under the trade name ‘Ferrox cube’.
➢ X-ray crystallography reveals that ferrites usually have a structure which may be
described as a face centered cubic structure of Oxygen ions packed closely
together with the much smaller divalent and trivalent metal ions in the
interstitial sites as shown in figure. This structure is called the spinel structure.
Structures of ferrites

▪ Under careful examination it is found that in FCC Oxygen lattice there are
two types of interstitial sites present.
▪ (i) Surrounded tetrahedrally by four Oxygen ions called as ‘site A’.
▪ (ii) Surrounded octahedrally by six Oxygen ions called as ‘site B’.
▪There are 64 ‘A’ and 32 ‘B’ sites in the unit cell structure; the unit cell is compose of 32
Oxygen ions.
▪ But out of these only 24 interstitial sites are occupied, 16 of which are ‘B’ sites and 8 ‘A’
sites.
▪ With reference to chemical formulae suggests that, in the unit cell there are 16 Fe +++
ions and 8 X++ ions. Depending on the distribution of the 24 cations among 24
interstitial sites, two types of structures are present in the ferrites. Namely Regular
spinel and Inverse spinel.
Regular spinel
In the regular spinel each trivalent metal ion occupies an octahedral site (B)
and each divalent ion occupies a tetrahedral site (A) of FCC Oxygen lattice.
Ex. X++Fe2+++O4 where X is divalent metal ion such as Mn, Mg, Cu, Ni etc.

Inverse spinel
In the inverse spinel trivalent metal ions occupies all tetrahedral sites (B) and
half of the octahedral sites (A) of FCC Oxygen lattice.
Ex. Ferrous ferrite.

2
Types of interaction Fe
+++

• The explanation of the anti parallel arrangement A sites

between the spins on the tetrahedral sites (A)
and those on the octahedral sites (B) was put B sites
forward by Neel in 1948.
• According to him, this arrangement is due to
++
that there exists a negative interaction between +++ Fe
Fe
them.
• Besides this ‘AB’ interaction, he also took into account an ‘AA’ and ‘BB’
interaction. These interaction are found to be negative and weaker than ‘AB’
interaction. The tendency of ‘AB’ interaction is to align all ‘A’ spins parallel to
each other and antiparallel to all ‘B’ spins.
• Where as the tendency of ’ AA’ interaction is to spoil the parallel alignment of
‘A’ spins and that of BB interaction is to spoil the parallel arrangement of ‘B’
spins. But since ‘AB’ is very strong as compared with ‘AA’ as well as ‘BB’, the
effect of ‘AB’ interaction dominates and an antiparallel spin arrangement
results.
• Thus the behaviour of ferromagnetic solids is described these negative
interactions, as here ‘AA’ and ‘BB’ are also of different strengths.
Reference books:

▪ Material Science – Arumugam

▪ Engineering Physics – Malik & Singh
▪ Solid State physics – R.L.Singhal
The End