UNIT-3: Magnetism

Detailed Syllabus: Introduction - Magnetic dipole moment - Magnetization-Magnetic

susceptibility and permeability - Classification of magnetic materials: Dia, para, Ferro, anti-ferro
& Ferri magnetic materials - Domain concept for Ferromagnetism (Qualitative) - Hysteresis - soft
and hard magnetic materials.

Magnetic dipole: It is a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated
by a small distance of ‘2l’metre.

Magnetic dipole Moment (μ ) :It is defined as the product of the pole strength (m) and the
distance
between the two poles (2l) of the magnet.
i . e . . μ = (2l ) m
Units: Ampere – metre2

Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction (B): It is defined as the number of

magnetic lines of force passing perpendicularly through unit area.
B = magnetic flux / area = Φ / A
Units: Weber / metre2 or Tesla.

Magnetic Susceptibility:
Magnetic Susceptibility (χ) is the ratio of Magnetization (M) to the Magnetic Field Intensity (H).

𝑀
χ=
𝐻

Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity and can be positive (for paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic materials) or negative (for diamagnetic materials).

Permeability
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity.
µ = B/H
With medium, permeability is (µ) and in free space or vacuum, permeability is (µo)

Then, the relative permeability (µr) is defined as the ratio of permeability of medium (µ) to that of
permeability of free space (µo).
i.e., µr = µ / µo

The relation between relative permeability (µr) and susceptibility ( ) is defined as

µr = 1 +

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Magnetization
The process of making a substance temporarily or permanently magnetic, as by insertion in a
magnetic field is Magnetization (M).
The Intensity of Magentization (I) is change in magnetic moment (µ ) per unit volume of a material
in a magnetic field.
µ
I=
𝑉

Classification of Magnetic materials

Dia, para and Ferro- magnetism

Diamagnetic materials
The diamagnetism is the phenomenon by which the induced magnetic moment is always in the
opposite direction of applied field.
Properties
1. Their magnetic susceptibility is low and negative
2. For diamagnetic materials, each atom has no permanent magnetic moment.
3. Diamagnetic materials repel magnetic lines of force.
4. Diamagnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature.
5. Their relative permeability (µr) is less than one (µr <1).
6. Diamagnetism is found in those materials the atoms of which have even number of
electrons.
7. Examples are Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Bi, NaCl, H2O air and diamond etc

Paramagnetic materials

The paramagnetism is the phenomenon by which the induced magnetic moment orients the
magnetic dipoles in the direction of applied field.

Properties
1. Their magnetic susceptibility is low and positive
2. They possess permanent magnetic dipoles.
3. Paramagnetic materials attract magnetic lines of force.
4. Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature as χ ∝
1/T or χ= C/T. This is called Curie law, where C = Curie
constant.
5. Their relative permeability (µr) is greater than one (µr >1).
6. Paramagnetism is found in those materials the atoms of
which have majority of electron spins in the same direction.
7. Examples are Al, Mn, Pt, Na, CuCl2, O2 and crown glass.

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Ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetism is a phenomenon by which spontaneous magnetization occurs even in the absence
of applied field.
Properties

1. The cause of magnetism in due to formation of domains

2. Their magnitude of magnetic susceptibility is very large and

positive
3. Ferromagnetic materials attract magnetic lines of force very
strongly.
4. Susceptibility depends on temperature by the following relation as:
5. χ = C/T-Tc. This is called Curie Weiss law, where Tc = Curie
temperature.
6. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit hysteresis
7. Their relative permeability (µr) is very greater than one (µr >>1).
8. Examples are Fe, Co, Ni, Cd, Fe3O4 etc.

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS
a) Anti-Ferromagnetic materials
b) Ferrimagnetic materials
ANTI-FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
1. Spin alignment is antiparallel manner in neighboring magnetic ions
resulting in zero net magnetization
Examples are: FeO (ferrous oxide), MnO (Manganese oxide)
FERRI-MAGNETIC MATERIALS (OR) FERRITES
1. It is a special case of anti-ferromagnetic in which antiparallel moments are of different
magnitudes and a large magnetization occurs.
2. These are also called ferrites.
3. Examples are ferrous ferrite and nickel ferrite.

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Domain and Weiss field theory

Ferromagnetic Domains
• Ferromagnetic materials are made up of small regions called domains, where each domain
is already magnetized, even without an external field.
Magnetization Process
• In a weak magnetic field, magnetization occurs mainly by the growth of certain domains.
• In a strong magnetic field, magnetization happens by aligning all domains in the direction
of the field.
Residual Magnetism
• When the magnetic field is removed, the domain boundaries don’t return to their original
positions.
• This leaves some residual magnetism in the material, meaning it is not fully demagnetized.

Hysteresis Curve

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Hysteresis and Hysteresis Curve

• The inability of the magnetization to follow the same path when the magnetic field is
increased and decreased is called hysteresis. The curve that shows this behavior is the
hysteresis curve.

Complete Magnetization Cycle

• As the field H is further reversed and then returned to the initial

direction in steps, the magnetization follows a path, completing
the cycle represented by the curve BCDEFGB on the hysteresis
graph.

Residual Magnetism (Retentivity)

• When the external magnetic field (H) is removed (H = 0), some magnetic domains in
ferromagnetic materials stay aligned, creating a residual magnetism in the material.

• When H is reduced to zero, some magnetization (I) remains. This leftover magnetization
is called residual magnetism or retentivity.

Saturation

• As the magnetizing field (H) is increased, the magnetization (I) also increases until it
reaches a maximum, called the saturation point.

Coercivity

• When H is reversed, the magnetization (I) decreases and eventually becomes zero at a
certain point (H = Hc), called coercivity. Coercivity measures how hard or soft a magnetic
material is.

Magnetic Hardness and Softness

• Materials with high coercivity (like steel) are hard magnetic materials , while those with
low coercivity (like soft iron) are soft magnetic materials.

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Soft and Hard magnetic materials

Soft Magnetic Materials: The magnetic materials which can magnetize and de-magnetize easily
are called "soft magnetic materials"
Example: iron-cobalt alloy.

Hard Magnetic Materials: The magnetic materials which cannot magnetize and de-magnetize
easily are called "hard magnetic materials"
Example: nickel-cobalt alloy.

Hard magnetic materials Soft magnetic materials

Materials which retain their magnetism and are Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize
difficult to demagnetize are called hard and demagnetize.
magnetic materials.
These materials are used for making These materials are used for making temporary
permanent magnets. magnets.
They have large hysteresis loss due to large They have low hysteresis loss due to small
hysteresis loop area. hysteresis area.
Susceptibility and permeability are low. Susceptibility and permeability are high.
Coercivity and retentivity values are large. Coercivity and retentivity values are less.
Applications in digital computers, transducers Applications in electromagnets, AC current
and magnetic tapes machinery, transformers

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Dr.Rao - Quantum mechanics, Fastrack

UNIT- 4 : QUANTUM MECHANICS

Detailed Syllabus: Dual nature of matter – Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle – Significance

and properties of wave function – Schrodinger’s time independent and dependent wave
equations– Particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well.

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS AND DUAL NATURE OF MATTER

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only light (which was already known to have wave-
like properties), but also particles of matter, such as electrons, could exhibit wave-like behavior
(Matter waves). This idea was a major breakthrough in quantum mechanics.

MATTER WAVES

A material particle with velocity (v) is always associated with a wave called matter waves with
ℎ ℎ
wave length λ = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑝

Proof:

By Planck’s law, E = hν …………….. (1)

By Einstein’s relation, E = mc2 ……… (2)

ℎ
Substituting (1) in (2), we get for photons, λ = 𝑚𝑐

ℎ ℎ ℎ
Applying to material particles, we get λ = 𝑚𝑣 = =
𝑝 √2𝑚𝐸

For an electron under potential ‘V’, Debroglie wavelength

ℎ ℎ 12.27 1.227
λ = = = Å= 𝑛𝑚
𝑝 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉 √𝑉 √𝑉

Properties of matter waves

1) Lighter particles have greater de-Broglie wavelength

2) Low velocity particles have greater de-Broglie wavelength
3) Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
4) Matter waves are not Mechanical waves.
5) The velocity of electromagnetic waves is constant (speed of light in a vacuum). In contrast,
the velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the particle associated with them.
6) The velocity of matter waves (or the phase velocity of matter waves) can indeed be greater
than the speed of light.

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Dr.Rao - Quantum mechanics, Fastrack

CONCEPT OF WAVE FUNCTION (𝝋)

According to Schrodinger wave function is defined as

−𝑖
𝜑 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 exp[ (𝐸𝑡 − 𝑃𝑥)]

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTION:

1. The wave function's it is a complex and non-observable quantity.

2. The wave function is also called as probability amplitude.
3. 𝜑𝜑 ∗ = |𝜑|2 defines probability density.
4. |𝜑|2dv (or) |𝜑|2 dx dy dz represents probability of finding a particle in a volume dv.
+∞
5. Normalization condition in three dimensions ∭−∞ |𝜑|2 dx dy dz = 1
∞
6. Normalization condition in one dimension ∫−∞ |𝜑|2 dx = 1
7. The wave function vanishes at the boundaries

Limitations:

1. The Wave function is finite, continuous and single valued

2. The Wave function is analytical
3. The Wave function is normalized.
HEISENBURG UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE:

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that "it is impossible to simultaneously measure the
position and momentum of a particle with greater accuracy."

The uncertainty in position (Δx) and momentum (Δp) is given by:

ℏ
Δx ⋅ Δp ≥
2𝜋

Also,

The uncertainty in energy (ΔE) and time (Δt) is The uncertainty in angular displacement (Δθ)
given by: and angular momentum (ΔL) is given by:
ℏ ℏ
ΔE ⋅ Δt ≥ Δθ ⋅ ΔL ≥
2𝜋 2𝜋

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Dr.Rao - Quantum mechanics, Fastrack

SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATIONS

Two wave equations a) Time dependent b) Time independent

SCHRODINGER TIME DEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

Total Energy of the particle is

E = K.E + P.E

 𝑃2
E= + 𝑉
2𝑚

Multiplying with ‘𝜑 ′ on both sides

𝑃2𝜑
E𝜑= + 𝑉𝜑 …….. (1)
2𝑚

To simplify equation (1), we need to find ‘E 𝜑′ and ‘P2 𝜑’ using wave function
−𝑖
𝜑 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 exp[ (𝐸𝑡 − 𝑃𝑥)] …,..(2)

Finding E 𝜑 :

Apply derivative on both sides of equation (2) with respect to‘t’ once, we get
𝑑𝜑
E𝜑=i 𝑑𝑡 ……. (3)

Finding P2𝜑 :

Apply derivative on both sides of equation (2) with respect to‘x’ twice, we get

d2 φ
𝑃2 𝜑 = 𝑖 …………….. (4)
dx2

Substituting equations 3, 4 in (1) and simplifying, we get one dimensional Schrodinger equation as
2
d2 φ 𝑑𝜑
−
2𝑚 dx2
+ 𝑉𝜑 = i 𝑑𝑡 …… (in one dimension) … (5)

In three dimensions, the same equation can be expressed as

2
𝑑𝜑
(− ∇2 + 𝑉) 𝜑 = i 𝑑𝑡 …. (in three dimensions)
2𝑚

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Dr.Rao - Quantum mechanics, Fastrack

SCHRODINGER TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

This is done by using time dependent equation in one dimension of equation (5) which is
2
d2 φ 𝑑𝜑
− 2𝑚 + 𝑉𝜑 = i 𝑑𝑡 ……… (6)
dx2

d2 φ 𝑑𝜑
To simplify equation (6) we need to simplify the terms ‘ dx2 ’ and ‘ 𝑑𝑡
’ using the wave function

−𝑖
𝜑 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 exp[ (𝐸𝑡 − 𝑃𝑥)] ….. (7)

−𝑖𝐸𝑡 𝑖𝑝𝑥
𝜑 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 exp( ) 𝜑(𝑥),……… (8), where 𝜑(𝑥) = exp( )

d2 φ
Finding dx2
:

Differentiate equation (8) on both sides by ‘x’ twice, we get,

d2 φ(x,t) −𝑖𝐸𝑡 d2 φ(x)

dx2
= A exp ( ) dx2
………… (9)

Finding dφ/dt :

Differentiate equation (8) on both sides by ‘t’ once, we get,

𝑑𝜑(𝑥,𝑡) −𝑖𝐸𝑡 −𝑖𝐸

𝑑𝑡
= 𝐴 exp ( ) 𝜑(𝑥) ( ) ……. (10)

Substituting 9, 10 in equation (6), we get

d2 φ 2m
+ 2 (E − v)φ = 0 , which is Schrodinger one dimensional time
dx2

independent wave equation.

In three dimensions the same equation is written as,

2m
∇2 φ + 2 (E − v)φ = 0

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Dr.Rao - Quantum mechanics, Fastrack

PARTICLE IN POTENTIAL WELL (OR) SOLVING SCHRODINGER EQUATION FOR A

FREE PARTICLE(OR) EIGEN VALUES(ENERGY) AND EIGEN FUNCTIONS
(WAVEFUNCTION) FOR A PARTICLE IN A POTENTIAL WELL (OR) SHOW
THAT ENERGIES ARE QUANTIZED FOR A PARTICLE IN A POTENTIAL
WELL

In potential well, V(x) =0 for 0<x<L,

V(x) = ∞ for x≤0 and x≥L

Take Schrodinger one dimensional time independent, then

d2 φ 2m
+ 2 (E − v (x))φ = 0
dx 2

d2 φ 2m
Taking V=0, then dx2
+ 2 Eφ =0

2𝑚𝐸 d2 φ
Let 2 = 𝛼 2 , then above equation becomes dx2
+ 𝛼2φ = 0

General solution is 𝜑(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 ……(1)

Applying boundary conditions,

At x=0, 𝜑(𝑥) = 0 (1st Boundary condition),

At x=L, 𝜑(𝑥) = 0 (2nd Boundary condition)

Applying boundary conditions in (1), we get

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
Energy (En) = and Wave function 𝝋𝒏 (𝒙) = √𝑳 𝑺𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐 𝑳

Where n= 1,2 3……is a quantum number.

Quantum number n=1 n=2 n=3

Energy (En) ℎ2 4ℎ2 9ℎ2
(E1) = (E2) = = 4E1, (E3) = = 9E1
8𝑚𝐿2 2
8𝑚𝐿 8𝑚𝐿2

Wave function 𝝋𝒏 (𝒙) 2

𝜑1 (𝑥) = √ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝜋𝑥
2 2𝜋𝑥 2 3𝜋𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝜑2 (𝑥) = √ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝜑3 (𝑥) = √ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

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Dr.Rao - Quantum mechanics, Fastrack

Energy level diagram and diagrams for 𝜑 and 𝜑2 for particle in potential well

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 UNIT-5 : SEMICONDUCTORS
Detailed Syllabus: Formation of energy bands – classification of crystalline solids - Intrinsic
semiconductors: Density of charge carriers – Electrical conductivity – Extrinsic semiconductors:
density of charge carriers - Drift and diffusion currents – Einstein’s equation - Hall effect and its
Applications.

ENERGY BANDS IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS/FORMATION OF ENERGY BANDS:

 In a single silicon atom, electrons in each orbit have fixed energy levels.
 In solids, atoms are close together, so the energy levels of the outer electrons are
influenced by nearby atoms.
 When many atoms (like N silicon atoms) come together to form a crystal, energy levels
split into energy bands due to interactions between atoms.
 As atoms come closer than a certain distance, the energy levels split, creating a gap, Eg,
called the forbidden band between the valence band and conduction band.
 For N atoms, there are 8N available energy states—divided equally, with 4N states in the
lower (valence) band and 4N states in the upper (conduction) band.
• Valence Band: Holds 4N states and is completely filled with electrons.
• Conduction Band: Also has 4N states but is completely empty.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS IN TO CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDCTORS AND
INSULATORS:
Materials are classified into conductors, insulators, and semiconductors based on their ability to
conduct electric current.

Insulators

• Energy Band Diagram: Insulators have a large forbidden energy gap between the
valence band and conduction band.
• Wide Forbidden Gap: The gap is approximately 7 eV, making it hard for electrons to
jump from the valence to the conduction band.
• No Conduction: These materials don’t conduct electricity under normal conditions, as
electron movement across the gap is practically impossible.
• Examples: Diamond (gap ~6 eV), glass, wood, mica, paper.

Semiconductors
• Intermediate Conductivity: Semiconductors have a small forbidden energy gap
(typically <2 eV), placing them between insulators and conductors.
• Conductivity Increases with Temperature: As temperature rises, more electrons can
cross the gap, increasing conductivity.
• Behavior at Absolute Zero: At absolute zero (-273°C), semiconductors act as insulators.
• Examples: Silicon (gap ~1.1 eV), Germanium (gap ~0.7 eV).

Conductors
• High Number of Free Electrons: Conductors like copper have a large number of free
electrons
• No Forbidden Gap: The valence and conduction bands overlap, allowing electrons to
move freely even at room temperature.
• Examples: Metals like copper and aluminium.

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SEMICONDUCTOR: Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity that lies
between that of conductors and insulators. They have a small energy gap (usually < 2 eV)
between the valence band and conduction band, allowing limited electron movement. Their
conductivity increases with temperature.

Applications in 1. Diodes 2. Transistors 3. Solar cell 4. Sensors 5. Integrated Circuit (ICs)

6. Photodetectors 7. Laser diodes

There are two types of semiconductors.

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor 2. Extrinsic Semiconductor

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor in which charge carriers are created only by increasing temperature is known as
an intrinsic semiconductor.

• Pure Form: Made of pure semiconductor materials without impurities.

• Examples: Pure silicon and germanium.

Bond and Band diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor

Silicon (Si) is a Group 14 element with an atomic number of 14. It has four valence electrons in
its outermost shell, which participate in covalent bonding.

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The Fermi energy lies approximately in the middle of the energy gap between the valence band
and the conduction band
The energy band gap (Eg) is the energy difference between the bottom of the conduction band
(Ec) and the top of the valence band (Ev) in a semiconductor.

EXPRESSION FOR CONCENTRATION/DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN THE

CONDUCTION BAND (n)

n=  Z ( E ) F ( E )dE …….. (1)
Ec

In equation (1),
4
Z ( E )dE = 3 (2me *)3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE ……. (2)
h
EF − E
F (E) = exp ( ) … (3)
kT
Now taking (2), (3) in (1) and simplify the integration, we get,

2me * kT 3 / 2 E − Ec
 n = 2( 2
) exp( F )
h kT

EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF HOLES IN THE VALENCE BAND (p)

Ev

p =  Z ( E )[1 − F ( E )]dE ………. (1)

−
In equation (1),
4
Z ( E )dE = 3 (2mh *)3 / 2 E 1/ 2 dE … (2)
h
E − EF
1- F (E) = exp( ) …..(3)
kT
Now taking (2), (3) in (1) and simplify the integration, we get,

2 mh * kT 3/2 E − EF
 p = 2( 2
) exp( v )
h kT

INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION (ni)

In an intrinsic semiconductor n=p=ni => ni2=n. p

2 me * kT 3/ 2 E − Ec 2 mh * kT 3/ 2 E − EF
 ni 2 = 2( 2
) exp( F )  2( 2
) exp( v )
h kT h kT
 2 kT 
3/2
−E
 ni = 2  2  (me * mh *)3/4 exp( g )
 h  2kT

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INTRINSIC ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (σi):

The electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor is electrons and holes,

 i = ni e( e + h )....(1)
 2 kT 
3/ 2
−E
Since, ni = 2  2  (me * mh *)3/ 4 exp( g )
 h  2kT
Taking in (1) and apply the log on both sides, we get
Eg
ln  i = log A −
2kT
This indicates in intrinsic semiconductor, by increase of
temperature, conductivity also increases.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor, in which charge carriers are created not only by increasing temperature but
also by adding impurities to it, is known as an extrinsic semiconductor.

Two Types: Classified further based on the type of impurity added:

a) N-type Semiconductor b) P-type Semiconductor:

n-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

A n-type extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been created by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with a donor impurity, such as phosphorus or arsenic which add extra electrons,
making electrons the primary charge carriers.

( Ed + EC )
At T=0K, EF =
2

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 • A donor energy level is a discrete energy state just below the conduction band in the energy
band diagram of an n-type semiconductor.
• When a phosphorus atom replaces a silicon atom in the lattice, it introduces an additional fifth
electron (since phosphorus has 5 valence electrons compared to silicon's 4).
• This fifth electron is weakly bound to the phosphorus atom

CONCENTRATION/DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN THE CONDUCTION BAND (n) FOR

AN n-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:
From Intrinsic,
2 me * kT 3/2 E − Ec
n = 2( 2
) exp( F ) ……… (1)
h kT
By substituting, EF = ( Ed + EC ) + kT log Nd in (1), we get
2 2 2 me * kT 3/2
2( )
h2
 2 me * kT   E − EC 
3/4

 n = (2 N d )1/2   exp  d 
 h2   2kT 

p-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

A p-type semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been created by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with an acceptor impurity, such as boron or indium which create "holes" (positive
charge carriers) as the majority carriers.

( Ev + Ea )
At T=0K, EF =
2
• An acceptor energy level is a discrete energy state just above the valence band in the energy
band diagram of a p-type semiconductor.
• When a boron atom replaces a silicon atom in the crystal lattice, it has only three valence
electrons, compared to silicon's four.
• This causes a deficiency of one electron, creating a "hole" in the lattice. A hole is essentially a
positively charged site where an electron is missing.

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DENSITY/CONCENTRATION OF HOLES IN THE VALENCE BAND (p) OF AN p-TYPE
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:
From Intrinsic,
2 mh * kT 3/2 E − EF
p = 2( 2
) exp( v ) …..(5)
h kT

( Ev + Ea ) kT Na
By substituting, EF = − log in (1), we get
2 2 2 mh * kT 3/2
2( )
h2
 2 mh * kT   E − Ea 
3/4

p = (2 N a )1/2   exp  v 
 h2   2kT 

Comparison of Semiconductors
1. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Semiconductors
Property Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductor material with no Semiconductor doped with impurities to
Definition
impurities. enhance conductivity.
Charge Carriers Equal number of electrons and holes. Unequal number of electrons and holes.
Conductivity Low conductivity. Higher conductivity due to doping.
Pure silicon (Si), Pure germanium Doped silicon with boron (p-type) or
Examples
(Ge). phosphorus (n-type).
Doped with trivalent or pentavalent
Doping No doping; naturally pure.
elements.

2. P-Type vs. N-Type Semiconductors

Property P-Type Semiconductor N-Type Semiconductor
Trivalent impurity (e.g., boron, Pentavalent impurity (e.g.,
Dopant
aluminum). phosphorus, arsenic).
Majority Charge
Holes. Electrons.
Carriers
Minority Charge
Electrons. Holes.
Carriers
Conductivity due to movement of
Conductivity Conductivity due to movement of holes.
electrons.
Position of Energy Acceptor energy level near the valence Donor energy level near the
Level band. conduction band.
Negative charge carriers
Charge Type Positive charge carriers (holes).
(electrons).

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DRIFT AND DIFFUSION:

Drift: Drift is the motion of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a semiconductor due to the
influence of an applied electric field.

The net current density (J) under drift is given by,

Jdrift = (Jn)drift + (Jp)drift …….(1)
In (1), (Jn)drift=neµnE and (Jp)drift = peµpE
Therefore, Jdrift = neµnE + peµpE

Diffusion: The diffusion current is due to flow of charge carriers from high concentration to low
concentration in a non homogeneous semiconductor.

The net current density (J) under diffusion is given by,

Jdiffusion = (Jn)diffusion + (Jp)diffusion …….(1)
Bu using Fick’s law in (1),
𝜕(𝛥𝑛)
(𝐽𝑛 )𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝐷𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝛥𝑝)
(𝐽𝑝 )𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = −𝑒𝐷𝑝
𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝛥𝑛) 𝜕(𝛥𝑝)
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐽𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝐷𝑛 − 𝑒𝐷𝑝
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

[Dr. Rao-Semiconductors-fast-track] Page 8

 Einstein relation between drift and diffusion:
For electrons, under equilibrium,
( J n )drift = ( J n )diffusion
 ( n)
 neµe E = eDn
x
eDn  ( n)
 neE = .....(1) (sin ce neE = F )
µe x
eDn  ( n)
Then, F = ......(2)
µe x
Comparying (2) with force on gas molecules, which is
 ( n)
F = kT ....(3)
x
Now comparying (2), (3) we get ,
µ kT
Dn = e ....(4)
e
Simillarly for holes,
µ kT
Dp = h .....(5)
e
(4)
Now taking we get ,
(5)
Dn µ
= e
Dp µh
This is einstein ' s relation.

HALL EFFECT

When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current is placed in a transverse magnetic

field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current
and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and the generated voltage is
called Hall voltage.

Expression for Hall co-efficient (RH) :

Force due to the potential difference =eEH

Force due to the magnetic field= Bev
At equilibrium eEH= Bev
 EH = Bv ….. (1)

We know that, current density J= - n e v

[Dr. Rao-Semiconductors-fast-track] Page 9

 −𝐽
⇒ 𝑣 = . . . . (2)
𝑛𝑒
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 (2) 𝑖𝑛 (1), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐵𝐽
𝐸𝐻 = - . . . . . (3)
𝑛𝑒
1
𝐼𝑛 (3), 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 - = 𝑅𝐻 . . . (4) , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝐽𝑅𝐻
𝐸𝐻
⇒ 𝑅𝐻 = . . . . . . . (5)
𝐵𝐽
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (5), 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠
−1 𝐸𝐻
𝑅𝐻 = =
𝑛𝑒 𝐵𝐽

This is theoritical formula for Hall coefficient for n- type extrinsic semiconductor.

Simillarly for p-type extrinsic semiconductor

1
. 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑝𝑒

Conclusion :
i)If EH is positive, then RH is positive, the semiconductor is p-type.
ii) If EH is negative, then RH is negative, the semiconductor is n-type.

Note: The experimental formula for Hall coefficient is

VH t
RH =
IB

Important Applications / Significance of Hall Effect

1. It is used to determine whether the given semiconductor material is p-type or n-type. i.e.,
if RH is negative then the material is n-type and if RH is positive then the material is p-
type.
1
2. It is used to find carrier concentration of the given material n =
eRH
3. It is used to find the mobility of the charge carriers. (  = RH  )
VH t
4. It is used to calculate the magnetic flux density (B) applied ( B = )
IRH

[Dr. Rao-Semiconductors-fast-track] Page 10

[Dr. Rao-Semiconductors-fast-track] Page 11
 Dr.Rao, Fastrack, Free electron theory

UNIT – 4 : FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

1
Detailed Syllabus: Classical free electron theory (Qualitative with discussion of merits and demerits) –
Quantum free electron theory – electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron theory - Fermi-
Dirac distribution and its temperature dependence.

Three electron theories are proposed.

1. Classical Free electron theory 2. Quantum Free electron theory 3. Band Theory of solids

BRIEF EXPLANATION AND COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY AND

QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY:

Property Classical Free Electron Theory Quantum Free Electron Theory

Nature of Theory Macroscopic theory Microscopic theory
Proposed By Drude and Lorentz (1900) Sommerfeld (1928)
Describes free electrons in a Electrons move in a constant
Electron Behavior
lattice potential
Follows laws of classical Follows laws of quantum
Governing Laws
mechanics mechanics
Does not consider Pauli’s Considers Pauli's exclusion
Electron Distribution exclusion principle or electron principle and spin
spin
Assumes a continuous range of Considers discrete energy levels
Energy Levels
energy levels
Does not accurately explain heat Better explains heat capacity of
Explanation of Heat Capacity
capacity of metals metals
Particle Statistics Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics Fermi-Dirac statistics

CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

POSTULATES (OR) ASSUMPTIONS (OR) SALIENT FEATURES OF C.F.T
• Metals are made up of atoms, with each atom having a central nucleus and electrons moving around it.
• Electrons in metals can move freely throughout the entire volume, similar to how molecules move in a
gas.
• Without an electric field, the collisions between electrons are elastic (no energy loss).
• When an electric field is applied, electrons move in the opposite direction of the field.
• Electrons in metals act like a perfect gas and follow the rules of classical kinetic theory of gases.
 Dr.Rao, Fastrack, Free electron theory

MERITS (OR) SUCCESS OF C.F.T (CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY)

2
• It helps verify Ohm's law.
• It explains the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
• It is used to derive the Wiedemann-Franz law.
• It helps explain the optical properties of metals.

DEMERITS (OR) DRAW BACKS (OR) FAILURES OF C.F.T

• Cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators.

• Fails to explain phenomena like the Compton Effect and Photoelectric Effect.
• Does not match theoretical and experimental values of specific heat.
• Cannot satisfactorily explain different types of magnetism (e.g., ferromagnetism, paramagnetism).
• Fails to explain the Wiedemann-Franz law at low temperatures, where the law does not hold true.

QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

POSTULATES OF Q.F.T
• In 1928, Sommerfeld developed the quantum free electron theory by applying quantum mechanics
and Fermi-Dirac statistics to free electrons in metals.
• Unlike classical free electron theory, which allows all electrons to gain energy, quantum free
electron theory only allows a fraction of electrons to gain energy.

EXPRESSIONS FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (𝝈 ) BY QUANTUM MECHANICAL

ASSUMPTIONS

Drift velocity (Δv) and Electrical conductivity (𝝈):

Electrical force (F) = -eE ........(1)
dp dk
Also, F= = (since P= k) .........(2)
dt dt
Substituting (2) in (1) and rearranging, we get
-eE
dk = dt

Integrate on both sides for 0 to t , then -eτ  ne2 τ 

From current density (J) = -ne (V) = -ne (
E) =   E ......(5)
t t m  m 
-eE
 dk =
0
 dt
0
Comparying (5) with J = σE , we get σ =
ne2 τ
m
-eEτ
Simplyfying , we get Δk = .........(3)

Δk  -eEτ  -eτ
Therefore drift velocity (ΔV) = =  = E .....(4)
m m h  m
 Dr.Rao, Fastrack, Free electron theory

3. Explain the effect Fermi-Dirac distribution function with temperature? Define Fermi energy?
3
Ans: The Fermi function (or) the probability function is given by
𝟏
F (E) = 𝑬− 𝑬𝑭
𝟏+𝒆𝒙𝒑( )
𝑲𝑻

If, F (E) =1(energy states are completely filled), 0(unfilled), ½ (Partially filled).

Now verify F (E) at T=0K and T >0K

Case-1: (T=0K) Effect of Probability function with temperature

a) for E < EF
1 1 1
F (E) = = = =1 (Filled)
1+exp (−∞) 1+𝑜 1
b) for E > EF
1 1 1
F (E) = = = = 0 (Unfilled)
1+exp (∞) 1+∞ ∞

Case-2: (T>0K)

a) at E=EF
1 1
F (E) = = (Partially filled)
1+exp (0) 2

Definition of Fermi energy:

The Fermi energy (EF) is the energy of the highest occupied state at absolute zero temperature. It represents
the energy level below which all states are filled with electrons, and above which all states are empty. At
T=0 K, the Fermi energy separates the filled and empty states in a material.
i) At T=0K, the highest filled state is Fermi energy whose occupancy is 100%
ii) At T>0K, Fermi energy is partially filled whose occupancy is 50%
 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Define magnetic dipole moment and write its units.
It is defined as the product of the pole strength (m) and the distance between the two poles (2l)
of the magnet.
i.e., μ = 2l x m
Units: Ampere – metre2
2. What is magnetization?
The Intensity of Magentization (I) is change in magnetic moment (µ ) per unit volume of a
material in a magnetic field.
µ
I=
𝑉
3. Define the term magnetic susceptibility.
Magnetic Susceptibility (χ) is the ratio of Magnetization (M) to the Magnetic Field Intensity
(H).
𝑀
χ=
𝐻
4. Define the term magnetic permeability.
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic
intensity.
µ = B/H
The relative permeability (µr) is defined as the ratio of permeability of medium (µ) to that of
permeability of free space (µo).
i.e., µr = µ / µo

5. A magnetic field strength 300amp/m produces a magnetization of 4400amp/min a

ferromagnetic material. What is the relative permeability of the material?

6. State de-Broglie hypothesis of matter waves.

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only light (which was already known to have wave-
like properties), but also particles of matter, such as electrons, could exhibit wave-like behavior
(Matter waves). This idea was a major breakthrough in quantum mechanics.

A material particle with velocity (v) is always associated with a wave called matter waves
ℎ ℎ
with wave length λ = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑝
7. Write an expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of applied voltage.
1.227
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
√𝑉
8. Write Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation.
d2 φ 2m
+ 2 (E − v)φ = 0
dx 2

9. Write Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation.

2
d2 φ 𝑑𝜑
− + 𝑉𝜑 = i 𝑑𝑡
2𝑚 dx2
10. Write an expression for normalized wave function.

11. Write an expression for energy of a particle in one dimensional potential box.

En: Quantized energy level

n: Quantum number defining each energy level (1, 2, 3, ...).
h: Planck's constant
m: Mass of the particle
L: Length of the box
12. Write an expression for wave function of a particle in one dimensional potential box.
𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝝋𝒏 (𝒙) = √ 𝑺𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝑳 𝑳

13. Calculate velocity of an electron of wavelength 1.66x10-10m.

14. Write an expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function of the electrons.

𝟏
F (E) = 𝑬− 𝑬𝑭
𝟏+𝒆𝒙𝒑( )
𝑲𝑻
15. Write an expression for electrical conductivity in terms of relaxation time.
ne2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
16. What is an intrinsic type semiconductor?
A semiconductor in which charge carriers are created only by increasing temperature is known
as an intrinsic semiconductor.

Pure Form: Made of pure semiconductor materials without impurities.

Examples: Pure silicon and germanium.
17. What is p-type semiconductor?
A p-type semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been created by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with an acceptor impurity, such as boron or indium which create "holes"
(positive charge carriers) as the majority carriers.
18. What is n-type semiconductor?
A n-type extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been created by doping an
intrinsic semiconductor with a donor impurity, such as phosphorus or arsenic which add extra
electrons, making electrons the primary charge carriers.
19. Draw energy band diagram for intrinsic type semiconductor.

20. Draw energy band diagram for n-type semiconductor.

21. Draw energy band diagram for p-type semiconductor.

22. Write an expression for electrical conductivity of intrinsic type semiconductor.

23. What are majority and minority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor?
Majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge carriers are holes
24. Write Einstein’s equation in terms of diffusion constant and mobility of charge carriers.

25. Write any two applications of Hall Effect.

1. It is used to determine whether the given semiconductor material is p-type or n-type. i.e., if RH
is negative then the material is n-type and if RH is positive then the material is p-type.
1
2. It is used to find carrier concentration of the given material n =
eRH
 MID-2 QUESTION BANK – ENGINEERING PHYSICS – AY 2024-25- SEM-I

Magnetic Materials (UNIT-3)

1. Define magnetization and Magnetic dipole.
2. Define the term magnetic susceptibility, magnetic relative permeability and obtain the
relation between them.
3. Explain the classification of magnetic materials.
4. Give an account of domain theory of ferromagnetism.
5. Explain hysteresis loop observed in ferromagnetic materials.
6. Distinguish soft and hard magnetic materials.

Quantum Mechanics and Free Electron Theory (UNIT-4)

7. What are matter waves? Explain their properties.
8. Derive expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic energy (E) and Potential
(V).
9. Derive expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of momentum (P).
10. State and explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
11. Derive time independent Schrodinger wave equation.
12. Derive time dependent Schrodinger wave equation.
13. Explain physical significance and limitations of wave function.
14. Apply Schrodinger’s wave equation to the case of particle in a box and show that the
Energies of particle are quantized.
15. Derive an expression for Eigen values and Eigen functions for particle in one dimensional
potential well.
16. Show that matter wave velocity is greater than the light velocity.
17. Apply Schrodinger’s wave equation to the case of particle in a box and obtain an
expression for its wave function.
18. Explain briefly the quantum free electron theory of metal.
19. Explain the demerits of classical free electron theory of metals.
20. Explain merits of classical free electron theory.
21. Derive expression for electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron theory.
22. Elucidate the differences between classical free electron theory and quantum free electron
theory.
23. Explain the Fermi-Dirac distribution function of electrons and its dependence on
temperature.
24. a) State Debroglie Hypothesis. b) Calculate wavelength associated with an electron raised to
a potential of 54V.
25. a) Define the Fermi level of electron b) Calculate wavelength associated with an electron
with energy 2000eV.
26. a) Explain briefly the classical free electron theory of metals b) Calculate velocity of an
electron of wavelength 1.66x10-19m.
27. a) Write the expression for energies for a particle in a potential well in second and fourth
quantum state b) Calculate kinetic energy of an electron of wavelength1.66x10-19m.
28. a) Write the expression for energies for a particle in a potential well in second and fourth
excited state b) The electron is confined to a box of uncertainty in position is 10-8m.
Calculate the uncertainty in its velocity.
29. a) Explain the concept of ψ and [ψ]2 and describe your analysis of their application for a
particle in a potential well. b) An electron is confined to a one dimensional potential box of
length 2Ao. Calculate the energy corresponding to the second quantum state.
30. a) Calculate the difference between the ground state and first excited state of an electron in a
one dimensional potential well b) An electron is confined to a one dimensional potential box
of length 2Ao. Calculate the energy corresponding to the third exited state (n=4).

Semiconductors (UNIT-5)
31. Explain the formation of energy bands in solids.
32. Discuss the classification of solids based on energy bands.
33. Explain bond formation in intrinsic type semiconductors.
34. What is semiconductor? Explain the classification of semiconductors.
35. Explain bond formation in n-type semiconductors.
36. Explain bond formation in p-type semiconductors.
37. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic type semiconductors with suitable examples.
38. Obtain an expression for the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor.
39. Derive an expression for density of electrons in conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
40. Derive an expression for the density of holes in valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor.
41. Derive an expression for carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor.
42. Derive an expression for carrier concentration in p-type semiconductor.
43. Describe drift and diffusion currents in a semiconductor.
44. Deduce Einstein’s equation based on drift and diffusion currents.

45. Describe Hall Effect in semiconductors.

46. Write applications of Hall Effect.
47. Show that for p-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient RH=1/pe.
48. Show that for n-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient RH=-1/ne.
49. a) State two important applications of semiconductors b) The Hall coefficient of a specimen is
3.66x10-4m3c-1. Its resistivity is 8.93x10-3Ωm. Find carrier density.
50. a) Distinguish between p-type and n-type extrinsic semiconductors b) The Hall coefficient of
a specimen is 3.66x10-4m3c-1. Its resistivity is 8.93x10-3Ωm. Find mobility of charge carriers.
51. a) Provide examples of trivalent and pentavalent impurity atoms used in n-type and p-type
extrinsic semiconductors. b) Find the diffusion coefficient of electron in silicon at 300 K, if
µe is 0.19 m2/V-S (Given data KB=1.38X 10-23)
Short answer questions
1. Define magnetic dipole moment and write its units.
2. What is magnetization?
3. Define the term magnetic susceptibility.
4. Define the term magnetic permeability.
5. A magnetic field strength 300amp/m produces a magnetization of 4400amp/min a
ferromagnetic material. What is the relative permeability of the material?
6. State de-Broglie hypothesis of matter waves.
7. Write an expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of applied voltage.
8. Write Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation.
9. Write Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation.
10. Write an expression for normalized wave function.
11. Write an expression for energy of a particle in one dimensional potential box.
12. Write an expression for wave function of a particle in one dimensional potential box.
13. Calculate velocity of an electron of wavelength 1.66x10-10m.
14. Write an expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function of the electrons.
15. Write an expression for electrical conductivity in terms of relaxation time.
16. What is an intrinsic type semi conductor?
17. What is p-type semiconductor?
18. What is n-type semiconductor?
19. Draw energy band diagram for intrinsic type semiconductor.
20. Draw energy band diagram for n-type semiconductor.
21. Draw energy band diagram for p-type semiconductor.
22. Write an expression for electrical conductivity of intrinsic type semiconductor.
23. What are majority and minority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor?
24. Write Einstein’s equation in terms of diffusion constant and mobility of charge carriers.
25. Write any two applications of Hall Effect.
 ENGINEEERING PHYSICS – MID-II – NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS
1. Calculate wavelength associated with an electron raised to a potential of 54V.

2. Calculate wavelength associated with an electron with energy 2000eV.

3. Calculate velocity of an electron of wavelength 1.66x10-19m.

4. Calculate kinetic energy of an electron of wavelength1.66x10-19m.

5. The electron is confined to a box of uncertainty in position is 10 -8m. Calculate
the uncertainty in its velocity.

6. An electron is confined to a one dimensional potential box of length 2Ao.

Calculate the energy corresponding to the second quantum state.

7. An electron is confined to a one dimensional potential box of length 2Ao.

Calculate the energy corresponding to the third exited state (n=4).

For n=4
8. The Hall coefficient of a specimen is 3.66x10-4m3c-1. Its resistivity is 8.93x10-3Ωm.
Find carrier density.

9. The Hall coefficient of a specimen is 3.66x10-4m3c-1. Its resistivity is 8.93x10-3Ωm.

Find mobility of charge carriers.

10. Find the diffusion coefficient of electron in silicon at 300 K, if µe is 0.19 m2/V-S
(Given data KB=1.38X 10-23)
11. A magnetic field strength 300amp/m produces a magnetization of 4400amp/min
a ferromagnetic material. What is the relative permeability of the material?

12. Calculate velocity of an electron of wavelength 1.66x10-10m.