MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. INTRODUCTION

Any materials that can be magnetized by an applied by an applied external magnetic field is called a
magnetic materials. Magnetic materials can be easily magnetized because they have permanent or
induced magnetic moment in the presence of applied magnetic field. Magnetism arise from the
magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of the magnetic materials. Among the different eleven types
of magnetic materials, only five magnetic materials are the most important for the practical
application. They are:

§ Diamagnetic materials.

§ Paramagnetic materials.

§ Ferromagnetic materials.

§ Antiferromagnetic materials.

§ Ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites.

2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Magnetic flux (φ)

Total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface is known as magnetic flux. It is
represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and its unit

Magnetic flux density (or) Magnetic induction (B)

Magnetic flux density at any point in a m passing normally through unit area of cross section (A) at
that point. It is denoted by the symbol B and its unit is weber / metre2 or tesla.
B = [φ / A]

Intensity of magnetization (I)

The term magnetization means the process of converting non-magnetic material on magnetic
material.

When some amount of external magnetic field is applied to the metals such as iron, steel and alloys
etc., they are magnetized to different degrees. The intensity of magnetisation (I) is the measure of
the magnetisation of a magnetized specimen. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

I = M / V weber / metre2

Magnetic field intensity (or) strength (H)

Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is the force experienced by unit north pole
placed at that point.
It is denoted by H and its unit is Newton per weber or ampere turns per metre (A/m).

Magnetic permeability (μ)

Magnetic permeability of a substance measure the degree to which the magnetic field can penetrate
through the substance.
It is found that magnetic flux density (B) is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength (H)

B α H

B = μ H

Where μ is a constant of proportionality and it is known as permeability or absolute permeability of

μ=B/H

Hence, the permeability of a substance is the ratio of the magnetic flux density (B) inside the
substance to the magnetic field intensity (H).

Absolute permeability

Absolute permeability of a medium or material is defined as the product of permeability of free

μ = μ0x μr

Relative permeability of medium (μ r )

Relative permeability of a medium is defined as the ratio between absolute permeability of a

μr = μ / μ0

Magnetic susceptibility (χ)

Magnetic susceptibility (χ) of a specimen magnetized in a magnetic field.

χ = I /H

Retentivity (or) Remanence

When the external magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material is removed, the magnetic
material will not loss its magnetic property immediately. There exits some residual intensity of
magnetization in the specimen even when the magnetic field is cut off. This is called residual
magnetism (or) retentivity.
Coercivity

The residual magnetism can be completely removed from the material by applying a reverse
magnetic field. Hence coercivity of the magnetic material is the strength of reverse magnetic field (-
Hc) which is used to completely demagnetize the material.

3 ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT AND BOHR MAGNETON

3.1 Origin of magnetic moment

Any matter is basically made up of atoms. The property of magnetism exhibited by certain materials
with the magnetic property of its constituent atoms. We know that electrons in an atom revolve
around the nucleus in different orbits.

Basically there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an atom.

The orbital motions of electrons (the motion of electrons in the closed orbits around the nucleus)
are called orbital magnetic moment.

Spin motion of the electrons (due to electron spin angular momentum) is called spin magnetic
moment.

The contribution from the nuclear spin (due to nuclear spin angular momentum) is nearly 10 3 times
smaller than that of electron spin; it is not taken into consideration.

3.2 Bohr Magneton

The magnetic moment contributed by an electron with angular momentum quantum number n = 1
is known as Bohr Magneton.

4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

4.1. DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Diamagnetism is exhibited by all the materials. The atoms in the diamagnetic materials do not
possess permanent magnetic moment.
However, when a material is placed in a magnetic field, the electrons in the atomic orbits tend to
counteract the external magnetic field and the atoms acquire an induced magnetic moment.
As a result, the material becomes magnetized. The direction of the induced dipole moment is
opposite to that of externally applied magnetic field. Due to this effect, the material gets very weakly
repelled, in the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as diamagnetism.

The strength of the induced magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field and hence
magnetization of the material varies directly with the strength of the magnetic field. The induced
dipoles and magnetization vanish as soon as the applied field is removed.

Properties of diamagnetic material

The magnetic susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and applied magnetic
field strength.

4.2. PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

In certain materials, each atom or molecule possesses a net permanent magnetic moment (due to
orbital and spin magnetic moment) even in the absence of an external magnetic field.

The magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of external magnetic field. Therefore
the net magnetic moment is zero, and hence the magnetization of the material is zero.

But, when an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles tend to align themselves in the
direction of the magnetic field and the material becomes magnetized. As shown in fig. This effect is
known as paramagnetism. Thermal agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments.
With an increase in temperature, the increase in thermal agitation tends to randomize the dipole
direction thus leading to a decrease in magnetization.

This indicates that the paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with increases in temperature. It is
noted that the paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with temperature.

χα 1 / T

χ=C / T

This is known as Curie law of paramagnetism and C is a constant called Curie constant

Properties of paramagnetic materials

Paramagnetic materials attract magnetic lines of force.

They possess permanent dipole moment.

The susceptibility is positive and depend on temperature is given by

χ = –Cθ / T

Example- Manganous sulphate, ferric oxide, ferrous sulphate, nickel sulphate, etc.

4.3. FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Certain materials like iron, cobalt, nickel and certain alloys exhibit high degree of magnetization.
These materials show spontaneous magnetization. (i.e) they have small amount of magnetization
even in the absence of external magnetic field.

This indicates that there is strong internal field within the material which makes atomic magnetic
moments with each other. This phenomenon is known as ferromagnetism.
Properties of ferromagnetic materials:

All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the magnetic interaction between the two
dipoles.

They have permanent dipole moment. They are strongly attracted by the magnetic field.

They exhibit magnetization even in the absence of magnetic field. This property of ferromagnetic
material is called as spontaneous magnetization.

They exhibit hysteresis curve.

On heating, they lose their magnetization slowly.

The susceptibility is very high and depends on the temperature. It is given by

χ = C /T –θ

[ for T>θ; paramagnetic behaviour;

for T<θ; ferromagnetic behaviour]

Where C is the Curie constant and θ is the paramagnetic Curie temperature.

4.4.ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Antiferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials which exhibit a small positive susceptibility of
the order of 10 -3 to 10-5.

In antiferromagnetic materials, the susceptibility increases with increasing temperature and it

With further increase in temperature, the material reaches the paramagnetic state. The material is
antiferromagnetic below TN.

Properties of antiferromagnetic materials

The electron spin of neighboring atoms are aligned antiparallel. (i.e) the spin alignment is
antiparallel.

Antiferromagnetic susceptibility is mainly depends on temperature.

The susceptibility of the antiferromagneitc material is small and positive. It is given by

The susceptibility initially increases slightly with the temperature and beyond Neel temperature, the
susceptibility decreases with temperature.

4.5.FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Properties of ferrites
Ferrites have net magnetic moment
Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic, while it behaves ferromagnetic material blow
Curie temperature.

The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive. It is temperature dependent and is given by

Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as shown fig.

Mechanically it has pure iron character.

They have high permeability and resistivity.

They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.

5 FERROMAGNETISM

The materials which have finite value of magnetization even if the external magnetic field is absent
are called ferromagnetic materials. This phenomenon is called ferromagnetism. The ferromagnetic
materials exhibit high degree of magnetization.

Explanation

In a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic interactions between any two dipoles align themselves
parallel to each other. Ferromagnetism arises due to the special form of interaction called exchange
coupling between adjacent atoms. This exchange coupling is favourable for spin alighnment and they
coupling their magnetic moments together in rigid parallelism.
A ferromagnetic materials exibits ferromagnetic property below a particular temperature called
ferromagnetic. Curie temperature (fƟ). Above fƟ they behaves as paramagnetic material.

6. DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

We can observe that ferromagnetic materials such as iron does not have magnetization unless they
have been previously placed in an external magnetic field. But according to Weiss theory, the
molecular magnets in the ferromagnetic material are said to be aligned in such way that, they
exhibit magnetization even in the absence of external magnetic field. This is called spontaneous
magnetization. (i.e) it should have some internal magnetization due to quantum exchange energy.

According to Weiss hypothesis, a single crystal of ferromagnetic material is divided into large
number of small regions called domains. These domains have spontaneous magnetization due to the
parallel alignment of spin magnetic moments in each atom. But the direction of spontaneous
magnetization varies from domain to domain and is oriented in such way that the net magnetization
of the specimen is zero

The boundaries separating the domains are called domain walls. These domain walls are analogous
to the grain boundaries in a polycrystalline material.

6.1. DOMAIN MAGNETIZATION

Now when the magnetic field is applied, then the magnetization occurs in the specimen by two ways
By moment of domain walls
By rotation of domain walls

moment of domain walls

The moment of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic fields. Due to this weak field applied to
the specimen the magnetic moment increases and hence the boundary of domains displaced, so
that the volume of the domains changes.

By rotation of domain walls

The rotation of domain walls takes place in strong magnetic fields. When the external field is high
then the magnetization changes by means of rotation of the direction of magnetization towards the
direction of the applied field.

6.2. ENERGIES INVOLVED IN DOMAIN GROWTH

To study the domain structure clearly, we must know four types of energy involved in the process of
domain growth. They are
Exchange energy
Anisotropy energy
Domain wall energy
Magneto- strictive energy

Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy (or) magneto-static energy

The interacting energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves is known
exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy. The exchange energy has established a single domain in
a specimen of ferromagnetic and it is shown in fig.

It is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets in a single domain and this work done is
stored as potential energy.
Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy

Domain wall is a transition layer which separates the adjacent domains, magnetized in different
directions. The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropy energy.

Based on the spin alignment, two types of domain walls may arise, namely Thick wall
Thin wall

(i) Thick wall

When the spin at the boundary are misaligned if the direction of the spin changes gradually as
shown in fig, it leads to a thick domain wall. Here the misalignments of spins are associated with
exchange energy.

(ii) Thin wall

When the spin at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropy energy becomes very less.
Since the anisotropy energy is directly proportional to the thickness if the wall, this leads to a thin
Bloch wall.

Magetostrictive energy

When the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either expand (or) shrink.

Therefore there exits a deformations (i.e) change in dimension of the material, when it is
magnetized.

This phenomenon is known as magnetosriction and the energy produced in this effect is known as
magnetostriction energy.

The deformation is different along different crystal directions and the change dimension
depends upon the nature of the material.

6.3. EXPLANATION OF HYSTERESIS BASED ON DOMAIN THEORY

Hysteresis

When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of magnetization, the variation
of magnetic induction (B) with respect to applied field (H) can be represented by a closed hysteresis
loop (or) curve. (i.e) it refers to the lagging of magnetization behind the magnetizing field.

If magnetizing field (H) is applied to a ferromagnetic material and if H is increases to Hmax the
material acquires magnetism. So the magnetic induction also increases, represented by oa in the fig.

Now if the magnetic field is decreased from Hmax to zero, the magnetic induction will not fall rabidly
to zero, but falls to ‘b’ rather than removed, the material still acquire some magnetic induction (ob)
which is so called residual magnetism or retntivity.
Now, to remove the residual magnetism, the magnetic field strength is reversed and increased to –
Hmax represented as ‘oc’ so called coercivi-H)is reduced to zero and the corresponding curve ‘de’ is
obtai curve ‘efa’ is obtained.

We know when the ferromagnetic material is subjected to external field, there is an increase in the
value of the magnetic moment due to two process.

The moment of domain walls

When small external field is applied, the domains walls displaced slightly in the easy direction of
magnetization. This gives rise to small magnetization corresponding to the initial portion of the
hysteresis curve (OA) as shown in fig.

Now of the field is removed, then the domains returns to the original state, and is known as
reversible domains.

When the field is increased, large numbers of domains contribute to the magnetization and thus the
magnetization increases rabidly with H.

Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of domain wall to a very large
distance, the domain boundaries do not come back to their original position. This process is
indicating as AB in fig and these domains are called irreversible domains.

Now, when the field is further increased, the domains starts rotating along the field direction and
the anisotropic energy stored in the hard direction, represented as BC in the fig.

Thus the specimen is said to attain the maximum magnetization. At this position, even when the
field is removed the material posses maximum magnetization, called residual magnetism or
retntivity, represented by OD in fig.

Actually after the removal of external field, the specimen will try to attain the original configuration
by the moment of domain wall. But this moment is stopped due to presence of impurities, lattice
imperfections etc. therefore to overcome this; a large amount of reverse magnetic field is applied to
the specimen. The amount of energy spend to reduce the magnetization to zero is called coercivity
represented by OE in the fig.
It is the loss of the energy in taking a ferromagnetic specimen through a complete cycle of
magnetization and the area enclosed is called hysteresis loop.

7 SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Depending upon the direction of magnetization by external field, and the area of hysteresis,
magnetic can be classified into two types as,

TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Magnetic materials are classified onto two types.

Soft magnetic materials .

Hard magnetic material

Soft magnetic materials:

Materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetize are called soft magnetic materials.

Example –pure iron, cast iron, carbon steel, silicon steel, mumetal.

Hard magnetic materials:

Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize are called hard magnetic
materials.

Example –tungsten steel, cobalt steel, alini, alnico, hypernic

Difference between soft and hard magnetic materials

s.no Soft magnetic materials

1. The magnetic materials can be easily magnetize and demagnetize.

2. The have high permeability.

3. Magnetic energy stored is not high.

4. Low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis loop area.

5. Coercivity and retentivity are small.

6. The eddy current loss is small due to its high resistivity.

7. The domain walls are easy to move.

Hard magnetic materials

1. The magnetic materials can not be easily magnetize and demagnetize.

2. The have low permeability.

3. Magnetic energy stored is high.

4. Large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area.

5. Coercivity and retentivity are large.

6. The eddy current loss is high due to its low resistivity.

7. The movement of domain wall must be prevented.

8. They are used in loud speakers and electrical measuring instruments.

9. FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS - FERRITES

Ferrites

Ferrites are components of iron oxide with oxides of other components.

The general chemical formula is X2+ Fe23+ O42- , where (X2+) is a divalent metal ion such as Fe2+,
Mg2+, Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+

9.1 PROPERTIES OF FERRITES

Ferrites have net magnetic moment.

Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic, while it behaves ferromagnetic material blow
Curie temperature.

The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive. It is temperature dependent and is given by

Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as shown fig.

Mechanically it has pure iron character.

They have high permeability and resistivity.

They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.
9.2 AVANTAGES
1. Efficiency is high and cost is low.

2. They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.

3. Easy to manufacture with great uniformity.

4. They occupies low volume.

9.3. Disadvantages

1. The main disadvantage of bubble memory is the requirement of a high recording time for
storing and retrieving the data than the charge coupled device (CCD).

2. It requires the interface circuits.

3. When compared with charge coupled device (CCD) memory the magnetic bubble memory has
slow access speed.

9.4. Applications

They are used to produce ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction principle. Ferrites are used in audio
and video transforms.

Ferrite rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity. They are also used in power
limiting and harmonic generation. They are used in computers and data processing circuits.

Ferrites are used in paramagnetic amplifiers so that the input can be amplified with low noise
figures.