UNIT IV

MAGNETIC AND DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION:
Magnetism was observed as early 800 BC in naturally occurring material called lead
stone which was used for navigation purposes. In the modern concept, all materials viz,
metals , semiconductors and insulator are said to exhibit magnetism, though of different
nature. Magnetism arises from the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of the magnetic
materials. Any material that can be magnetized by application of external magnetic field is
called a magnetic material. When the electrons revolve around the positive nucleus, orbital
magnetic moment arises. Similarly when the electron spins, spin magnetic moment arises.
Magnetic materials are the materials which can be made to behave as magnets. When these
materials are kept in an external magnetic field, they create a permanent magnetic moment in
it.
FUNDAMENTAL TERMS OF MAGNETICS
The important terms involved in the magnetism are as follows.
MAGNETIZATION (M)
When a solid is placed in a magnetic field , it gets magnetized.The magnetic moment per unit
volume developed inside a solid is called Magnetization ,and is denoted by M. It is measured
in amperes per meter (am-1 ).
MAGNETIC INDUCTION OR MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY(B):
Magnetic induction in any material is the number of lines of magnetic force passing
perpendicularly through unit area. It is also equal to the magnetic force experienced by an unit
north pole placed in that magnetic field.
Unit: weber/m2(or) Tesla
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY:
It is a measure of a quality of the magnetic material and is defined as the ratio of the
magnetization (M) produced per unit applied magnetic field.
χ=M/H
Where H is the strength of the applied magnetic field,also referred to as the magnetic field
intensity. χ is a dimensionless quantity.

MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (H):

Magnetic field intensity is the force experienced by unit north pole when placed at the
given point in a magnetic field.
Unit : A/m
MAGNETIC PERMIABILITY(µ)
Magnetic permiability(µ) of any material is the ratio of magnetic induction(B) in
the sample to the applied magnetic field intensity H.
µ=B/H
The ratio µ/ µ0 is called the relative permeability(µr) of the solid.
 µr = µ/ µ0
M
=1+ μ
H
Where µ0 = permeability of free space (vacuum). It has a value of 4πx 10-7 H/m.
The intensity of magnetization (M) :
The intensity of Magnetization of a sample of a material is the magnetic moment per unit
volume.
I=M/V
2
Unit : weber/m

TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. Dia-magnetic materials
2. Para-magnetic materials
3. Ferro magnetic materials
4 .Ferri magnetic materials
Dia-magnetic materials:
The diamagnetism is the phenomenon by which the induced magnetic moment is always
in the opposite direction of the applied magnetic field. The materials which exhibit
diamagnetism are called dia-magnetic material.
Properties of diamagnetic materials
When placed inside a magnetic field, magnetic lines of force are repelled.

 Susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature.

 There is no permanent dipole moment, so they are called weak magnets.
 When placed inside a magnetic field, magnetic lines of force are repeled.
 Magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field strength.
 Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.
Examples: Gold, Germanium, Silicon.
PARA-MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
The paramagnetism is the phenomenon by which the orientations of magnetic
moments are largely dependent on temperature and applied field. The materials which exhibit
paramagnetism are called paramagnetic material.
Properties of para-magnetic materials:
 They possess permanent magnetic dipoles.
 These dipoles are non-interacting
 The dipoles are randomly oriented and hence in the absence of external applied magnetic
field, the net magnetization in any given direction is zero.

 When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force.
 Paramagnetic susceptibility is positive and depends greatly on temperature.
Magnetic susceptibility is positive and it is given by
C
χ=
T −θ
Where
C-curie constant
T-absolute temperature
θ -Curie temperature
 Permeability is greater than one.
Examples: Alkali metals (Na,K), transition metals, Chromium and Yttrium.
Bohr Magneton :
When the atom is placed in a magnetic field, the orbital magnetic moment of the
electrons is quantized. A quantum of magnetic moment of an atomic system is known as Bohr
magneton.
eh
μs =
4π
Curie Law :
Langevin showed that classical paramagnetic susceptibility (χ) due to the alignment of
magnetic moments along field direction is given by
2
Nμ C
χ =h0 =
3 KT T
where C = Curie constant and the relation is known as Curie Law.
FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Ferromagnetism is a phenomenon by which spontaneous magnetization occurs when T≤θ and
so even in the absence of applied field, the magnetic moments are enormous. Here θ is the
curie temperature of the material. The materials which exhibit ferromagnetism are called
ferromagnetic material.
Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials:
• When a rod of this material is placed in a magnetic field, it rapidly aligns itself in the track of
the field.
• It is strongly attracted by the magnet.
• The ferromagnetism mechanism is not present in liquids and gases.
• The intensity of magnetization (M), magnetic susceptibility (χm), relative permeability (µr),
and magnetic flux density (B) of this material will be always prominent and positive.
µ0→ Magnetic permittivity of free space.
H → Applied peripheral magnetic field strength.

Curie – Weiss Law :

Ferromagnetic materials exhibit spontaneous magnetization below a characteristic
temperature called the ferromagnetic curie temperature. Above this temperature, the
substance becomes paramagnetic and obey Curie – Weiss Law.
C
χ=
T −θ
where c is Curie constant θ is paramagnetic Curie temperature.
Anti-ferromagnetism:
Anti-ferromagnetism refers to spin alignment in an anti-parallel manner neighbouring
magnetic ions resulting in zero net magnetization. Magnitude of susceptiblity is small and
positive and depends on temperature. The magnetic susceptibility of an anti-ferromagnetic
material typically shows a maximum at the Neel temperature. Neel temperature is the
temperature above which certain anti-ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic.
When T>TN
C
χ=
T +θ
where TN is the Neel temperature ,c is Curie constant and θ is paramagnetic Curie temperature.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FERRO AND ANTI FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS.

Ferro-magnetic materials Antiferro-magnetic materials
 The susceptibility is positive and large. The susceptibility is positive and very
small.
The Susceptibility depends upon The susceptibility increases as temperature
temperature increases and beyond a particular
temperature, known as Neel temperature,
the susceptibility decreases with
temperature.
In ferromagnetic material there will In this spins are aligned in anti parallel
be large number of unequal electron manner due to unfavourable exchange
spins and hence interaction among them, resulting in zero
magnetic moment
there exists enormous amount of permanent
magnetic moment
Examples are Iron, nickel, cobalt, steel Example are Ferrous oxide, MnO4,,
MnS, Fecl2.

Ferri-magnetic materials (Ferrites):

The substance in which the magnetic moments of the domains are aligned in parallel and
antiparallel directions in unequal numbers are said to have ferrimagnetism. The materials
which exhibit ferrimagnetism are called ferri magnetic material or ferrites.
Properties of Ferrimagnetic Materials:
• Ferri-magnetic materials possess net magnetic moment.
• Ferri-magnetic domains become magnetic bubbles to act memory elements.
• Spin alignment is anti parallel of different magnitudes.

• When the temperature is higher than TN, χ = 𝐶 /𝑇± 𝜃. Examples : Ferrites.

• Magnitude of susceptibility is very large and positive.

• They have high permeability and high resistivity.

• Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic while it behaves as ferromagnetic
materials below Curie temperature.
 Applications:
1. Hard magnetic ferrites are used in the manufacture of permanent magnets which posses
high electrical resistance.
2. Soft magnetic ferrites are used in the production of cores for inductor coils used in
telecommunication and low power transformers.
3. Ferrites are used in magnetic films.
4. Ferrites are used in information storage devices such as magnetic discs and tapes.
5. Ferrite rods are used in radio receiver to increase the sensitivity and selectivity.

COMPARISON OF DIA, PARA AND FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:

S.No Dia-magnetic material Para-magnetic material Ferro-magnetic material
1. In a diamagnetic material there are equal In paramagnetic material In ferromagnetic material there will
numbers of electron spins which are there are unequal be large number of unequal
randomly oriented and hence the net numbers of electron spins electron spins and hence there
magnetic moment is zero. and hence there exists a exists enormous amount of
permanent magnetic permanent magnetic moment.
moment.
2 When the external magnetic field is When the external When the external magnetic field is
applied, the electrons will align magnetic field is applied, applied, the electrons which are
perpendicular to the field direction and the electrons will align already aligned parallel will
hence it reduces the magnetic induction parallel to the field reorient itself along the field
present in the material. Thus they are direction and hence the direction and will be very easily
named as weak magnets. material is magnetised. magnetised. Thus they are named
Thus they are named as as very strong
strong magnets magnets.
3 The susceptibility is negative. The susceptibility is The susceptibility is positive and
positive and small. large.
4 The susceptibility is independent of The susceptibility The susceptibility depends upon
temperature. varies the temperature.
inversely with the
absolute temperature.
5 Permeability is less than 1 Permeability is greater than Permeability is very much greater
1. than 1.
6 When the temperature is less than When the temperature of When the temperature is greater than
critical temperature, the the material is less than curie temperature, the
diamagnetism suddenly disappears and curie temperature, the ferromagnetic material is converted
becomesa normal material paramagnetic material is into paramagnetic
converted into material.
diamagnetic material
7 Egs: Gold,antimony,bismuth, water, Egs:Platinum,chromium, Egs:Ferrous oxide,MnO4,,MnS,
hydrogen,alcohol, aluminium, copper FeCl2
 germanium, silicon etc., sulphate,
manganese sulphate etc.,
8 When the material is placed in the When the material is When the material is placed in the
magnetic field , the magnetic flux lines placed in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux
are repelled away from the material magneticfield, the lines are highly attracted towards
magnetic flux lines passes the centre of the material.
through the material

Heisenberg’s interpretation
The Weiss theory of ferromagnetism explains about the molecular field but it is not
possible to explain large value of internal field.
To explain the large internal field, Heisenberg gave an explanation which is based on the
non- magnetic interaction called the exchange interaction between electrons. These exchange
forces are caused by coulomb interaction and generally it should be larger than magnetic
interaction. Exchange force appears in the form of spin-spin interaction and the strength of
the interaction depends upon the interatomic separation, it may change its sign as the
separation is varied. If the interatomic distance is decreased, the electron spins are decreased
and therefore the exchange force decreases and finally they favour the anti-parallel spins.
Heisenberg developed his theory on the analogy of Heitler-london model of hydrogen
molecule. According to this, the exchange interaction between electrons in different quantum
states lead to a lower energy, provided the spin quantum numbers of both the states are same.
ie., the spins are parallel. Therefore the exchange interaction between the electrons is
represented as,Eex = -2Jij SiSj
Where Jij is sthe exchange integral for the two atoms and Si and Sj are the spin angular
moments associated with the ithand jthstate. A plot of exchange integral value (Jij) and the
interatomic distance (rab) is shown in fig.

Let us consider rab as the inter atomic distance and r0 as the orbital radius electron. From the
graph we can say.
• The value of Jij is positive when rab/r0>3. i., the exchange energy is negative and hence the
parallel orientation is high. Due to this the atom possess ferromagnetic properties.
(ex:Fe,Co,Ni and Gd)

• The value of Jij is negative when rab/r0>3. ie., the exchange energy is positive and hence the
atoms coming under this criteria possess anti-ferromagnetic properties.(ex: Cr,Mn).
• Therefore the ratio rab/r0 is the criteria for a magnetic materials whether it is ferro (or)
antiferromagnetic materials. Moreover alloys of any two materials give rise to favourable
ratio value. This is great boom in solid state for the production of new materials of any
desired characteristics.
Domain Theory of Ferro Magnetism
This theory was proposed by Weiss in 1907. It explains the hysteresis and the properties of
ferromagnetic materials.

Postulates of domain theory:

A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small region called domains (0.1
to 1 of area).
• In each domain the magnetic moments are in same direction.
• But the magnetic moment varies from domain to domain and the net magnetization is zero,
• In the absence external magnetic field all the magnetic moments are in different direction.
• When a magnetic field is applied there are two process takes place
1.By the motion of domain walls.
2.By the rotation of domains.
1.By the motion of Domain walls
When a small amount of magnetic field is applied, the dipoles in the domains are aligned
parallel to the applied magnetic field. It increases domain area by the motion of domain walls.

2.By the rotation of Domains

If the applied magnetic field is further increased, the domains are rotated parallel to the field
direction by the rotation of domains.
Energies involved in the domain growth (or) Origin of Domain theory of
Ferromagnetism.

The total internal energy of the domain structure in a ferromagnetic material is made up
from the following
1.Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy.
2.Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.
3.Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.
4.Magnetostriction energy
1.Exchange energy (or) Magnetic Field energy

“The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves” is the called
exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy. It arises from an interaction of electron spins.
It depends upon the inter atomic distance. This exchange energy also called magnetic field
energy. Whose energy is required in assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and
this work done is stored as potential energy. The volume of the domain may very between
10–2 to10–6cm3.
2.Anisotropy energy
The excess of energy is required to magnetize a specimen along the hard direction is called the
crystalline anisotropy energy. In ferromagnetic materials there are two types of directions of
magnetization namely,
• Easy direction and
• Hard directions.
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard direction of
magnetization, strong field should be applied.
Crystalline anisotropy energy is energy of magnetization which is the function of crystal
orientation. As shown in figure magnetization curves for iron with the applied field along
different crystallographic direction crystallographic directions have been drawn. For example,
in BCC iron the easy direction is [100], the medium direction is [110], and the hard direction
[111]. This energy is very important in determining the characteristic domain boundaries.
3. Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy
A thin boundary or region that separates adjacent domains in different directions is called
domain wall or Bloch wall. The size of the Bloch walls is about 200 to 300 lattice constant
thickness. The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic
energy. Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise, namely,
Thick wall: When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of the spin
changes gradually as shown in below figure, it leads to a thick Bloch wall. Here the
misalignments of spins are associated with exchange energy.
Thin wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropic energy
becomes very less. Since the anisotropic energy is directly proportional to the thickness of
the wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.

4.Magetostriction energy
When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffers a change in dimensions. This
phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction. This deformation is different along different
 crystal directions. So if the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either
expand or shrink. This means that work must be done against the elastic restoring forces. The
work done by the magnetic field against these elastic restoring forces is called magneto-
elastic energy or Magnetostrictive energy.
HYSTERESIS
The hysteresis of ferromagnetic material refers to the lagging of magnetization behind the
magnetising field.In a system with a magnetic field, hysteresis occurs. Ferromagnetic
materials have a common characteristic called hysteresis. The hysteresis effect is a
phenomenon that occurs when the magnetization of ferromagnetic materials lags behind the
magnetic field. The word hysteresis means “lagging.” Magnetic flux density (B) lags after
magnetic field strength, resulting in hysteresis (H).Hysteresis is a property of all
ferromagnetic materials. Let’s look at an example where a ferromagnetic material is placed
within a current-carrying coil to better grasp the notion. The material becomes magnetized as
a result of the magnetic field present. Hysteresis is known as the process of demagnetizing a
material by reversing the direction of the current.
Hysteresis Loop
The magnetic flux density and the magnetising field strength are represented by the hysteresis
loop. The loop is created by monitoring the magnetic flux emitted by the ferromagnetic
material while the external magnetising field is changed.
The graph will indicate a hysteresis loop if B is measured for various values of H and the
results are presented in visual formats.
 When the magnetic field strength (H) is increased from zero, the magnetic flux density (B)
increases.
 As the magnetic field is increased, the value of magnetism rises until it hits point A, which is
known as the saturation point, where B remains constant.
 With a drop in the value of the magnetic field, there is a decrease in the value of magnetism.
However, when B and H are both zero, the substance or material retains some magnetic,
which is known as retentivity or residual magnetism.
 When there is a reduction in the magnetic field towards the negative side, magnetism likewise
decreases. The material is entirely demagnetized at point C.
 Coercive force is the amount of force necessary to eliminate a material’s retentivity (C).
 The cycle is repeated in the opposite direction, with the saturation point D, retentivity point E,
and coercive force F.
 The cycle is complete due to the forward and opposite direction processes, and this cycle is
known as the hysteresis loop.
Advantages of Hysteresis Loop
1. The loss of hysteresis is shown by a decreased area of the hysteresis loop.
2. The relevance of retentivity and coercivity is provided by the hysteresis loop to a
material. As a result, the heart of machines makes it easier to choose the correct material for
making a permanent magnet.
3. The B-H graph may be used to determine residual magnetism, making a material
selection for electromagnets straightforward.

Retentivity and Coercivity:

After an external magnetising field is used to magnetise a ferromagnetic material, the material
will not relax back to its zero magnetization state when the external magnetising field is
removed.
Retentivity :
It is the amount of magnetism that remains after the external magnetising field is
withdrawn. It refers to a material’s capacity to maintain certain magnetic properties after an
external magnetising force has been withdrawn. The value of flux density at the hysteresis
loop’s point B is the retentivity.
Coercivity :
The coercivity of substance is defined as the amount of reverse(-ve H) external magnetising
field necessary to totally demagnetize the substance. The value of H at the hysteresis loop’s
point C is the coercivity.
Energy Loss due to Hysteresis
1. The greatest example of analysing energy loss due to hysteresis is a transformer because
we know that energy is required throughout the magnetization and demagnetization
processes.
2. Energy is expanded during the magnetization and demagnetization of magnetic objects,
and this expanded energy manifests as heat. Hysteresis loss is the term for this type of heat
loss.
3. Due to the continuous process of magnetization and demagnetization in transformers,
energy is continuously lost in the form of heat, reducing the transformer’s efficiency.
4. Soft iron cores are used in transformers to prevent energy loss because the energy loss
or hysteresis loss in soft iron is significantly lower than in other materials.

Magnetization and Demagnetization:

The method of developing magnetic properties inside a magnetic substance is known as
magnetization. With the aid of an electric current or a powerful magnet, any magnetic
material may be magnetised.
In simple terms, if any magnetic substance is placed in an external magnetising field, the
material will become magnetised, and if the external magnetising field is reversed, the
material will become demagnetized.
When ferromagnetic materials are put inside a current-carrying coil, the magnetizing field H
produced by the current pushes some or all of the material’s atomic magnetic dipoles to align
with the external magnetizing field, magnetizing the material.
Eddy Current Loss
The eddy current loss occurs because of the interaction of magnetic field and conductor. If an
eddy current of magnitude I flows through a core path of resistance r, it will dissipate energy
in the form of heat according to the power equation power = I 2R. Since this represents energy
being expended for no useful purpose, it is considered as an eddy current loss, sometimes
called iron loss.
Differences between the Hysteresis and Eddy Current Loss

1. The loss which occurs because of the eddy current is known as the eddy current loss.
The eddy current induces because of the interaction of the variable magnetic field and
conductor. The loss which occurs because of the reversal of the magnetising force is known
as the hysteresis loss.
2. The eddy current loss occurs because of the interaction of magnetic field and conductor.
The hysteresis loss occurs because of the reversal of the magnetism.
3. The eddy current loss is minimised by using the thin core of lamination. The silicon
steel material is used for minimising the hysteresis loss.

Hard and Soft magnetic materials:

A magnetic material is a type of substance or material which gets attracted towards a
magnet. The magnetic material also acquires magnetization when it is placed in the magnetic
 field of a magnet. Depending on the magnetization property, there are two types of magnetic
materials namely,
• Hard Magnetic Materials
• Soft Magnetic Materials

Hard Magnetic Material:

Hard magnetic materials are those types of magnetic materials that maintain a constant
magnetic property after magnetization at once. Therefore, the hard magnetic materials are
sometimes also termed as permanent magnetic materials.
Hard magnetic materials have high coercivity and low permeability. For this reason, it is
quite difficult to demagnetize the hard magnetic materials. The area of hysteresis loop for hard
magnetic materials is large, consequently these materials have large hysteresis loss.
Although,the hard magnetic materials can store relatively high energy in the magnetic field. In
practice, the hard magnetic materials are widely used for making permanent magnets. Some
common examples of permanent magnetic materials are AlNiCo alloy, FeCrCO alloy,
permanent magnet ferrites, etc.
Soft Magnetic Material:
A type of magnetic material which can be easily magnetized and demagnetized is
known as soft magnetic material. The soft magnetic materials have low value of coercivity and
high value of permeability.The area of hysteresis loop of the soft magnetic materials is small, as
a result the hysteresis loss in case of soft magnetic materials is less. Generally, the soft magnetic
materials have high resistivity. Consequently, the eddy current loss occurring in these materials
is also low.
Soft magnetic materials store less energy in the magnetic field as compared to the hard
magnetic materials. Since, the soft magnetic materials have high permeability, hence these are
most suitable for making magnetic circuits for carrying flux in electrical machines. The most
extensively used soft magnetic materials in electrical machines are silicon sheet steel and several
soft ferrites. These materials are also used for making the electromagnets.

Difference between Hard Magnetic Material and Soft Magnetic Material:

The major differences between the hard magnetic materials and the soft magnetic materials are
listed in the following table –
 Magnetic resonance imaging:
Magnetic resonance imaging is medical imaging Technique used in radiology to form
pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and
disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, radio waves, , and field gradients to
generate images of the organs in the body. MRI does not involve x-rays, which distinguishes
it from CT or CT scans. Magnetic resonance imaging is a form of Nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR). NMR can also be used for imaging in other NMR applications such
as NMR spectroscopy.

How does an MRI scan work?

The MRI machine is a large, cylindrical (tube-shaped) machine that creates a strong magnetic
field around the patient and sends pulses of radio waves from a scanner. Some MRI machines
look like narrow tunnels, while others are more open.The strong magnetic field created by the
MRI scanner causes the atoms in your body to align in the same direction. Radio waves are
then sent from the MRI machine and move these atoms out of the original position. As the
radio waves are turned off, the atoms return to their original position and send back radio
signals. These signals are received by a computer and converted into an image of the part of the
body being examined. This image appears on a viewing monitor. MRI may be used instead of
computed tomography (CT) when organs or soft tissue are being studied. MRI is better at
telling the difference between types of soft tissues and between normal and abnormal soft
 tissues.Because ionizing radiation is not used, there is no risk of exposure to radiation during
an MRI procedure.

Newer uses for MRI have contributed to the development of additional magnetic
resonance technology. Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is a procedure used to evaluate
blood flow through arteries. MRA can also be used to detect aneurysms in the brain and
vascular malformations — abnormalities of blood vessels in the brain, spinal cord or other
parts of the body.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain is used to determine the
specific location in the brain where a certain function, such as speech or memory, occurs. The
general areas of the brain in which such functions occur are known, but the exact location may
vary from person to person.

Applications of magnetic resonance imaging:

MRI gives health care providers useful information about a variety of conditions and
diagnostic procedures including:
• abnormalities of the brain and spinal cord
• abnormalities in various parts of the body such as breast, prostate, and liver
• injuries or abnormalities of the joints
• the structure and function of the heart (cardiac imaging)
• areas of activation within the brain (functional MRI or fMRI)
• blood flow through blood vessels and arteries (angiography)
• the chemical composition of tissues (spectroscopy)
In addition to these diagnostic uses, MRI may also be used to guide certain interventional
procedures.

IMPORTANT MAGNETIC, INSULATING AND FERROELECTRIC MATERIALS:

Magnetic materials:
The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent
magnetic field even in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of
materials can do this. Most materials, however, produce a magnetic field in response to an
applied magnetic field – a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types of
magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them.
The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure
of the material, particularly on its electron configuration.
Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic; they
are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are
 the only ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common example is a
traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the oldest
magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar to but weaker than ferromagnetics.
The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic
structure, as explained in Magnetism.

Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen, are weakly attracted
to either pole of a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that
of ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using
extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ferro fluids, although they are made of tiny
ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since
they cannot be magnetized. Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances, such
as carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet. The
permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of a vacuum. All
substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes
most substances. Although force on a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too
weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting magnets, diamagnetic objects such as
pieces of lead and even mice can be levitated, so they float in mid-air. Superconductors repel
magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly diamagnetic.
Insulating materials:
The Insulating materials are those that are characterized by being resistant to the
passage of electric current. Electrons cannot circulate freely through material because they are
tightly bound to atoms and therefore cannot conduct electricity. For example: wood, glass,
rubber, plastic. All the insulating materials have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance and as such resistivity is reduced with an increase in temperature. The function of
the insulator is very important without which no electrical machine can work, the majority of
the breakdown in the field of electrical engineering is due to the failure of insulation. The
importance of the insulating materials is ever-increasing in day by day as there is an
innumerable number of types of insulators available in the market. The selection of the right
type of insulating matter is very important because the life of the equipment depends on the
type of material used.A material that reduces or prevents the transmission of heat or sound or
electricity.This principle is used industrially in building and piping insulation such as (glass
wool), cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene foam (Styrofoam), urethane foam, vermiculite, per-
lite, and cork. Trapping air is also the principle in all highly insulating clothing materials such
as wool, down feathers and fleece.
Examples of Insulating Materials
Wood

Conductive for having salts and humidity. Used frequently on different structures and posts.
Silicate

Insulating material, mainly present in insulators. It can come as aluminum silicate (on hard
porcelain) or magnesium silicate (on steatite or forsterite). In the first case it is a good support
for heating conductors.

Expanded clay

It is obtained from natural clay and is used as an aggregate in mortars and concretes,
improving the insulating capacity in different sectors of construction.

Oxide ceramics

Functional for spark plug insulation, or to be used at high temperatures.

Glass

Short and medium tension insulation that does not absorb moisture but is prone to
bumps and breaks.

Cork

Material of low weight and density, which allows to place several layers improving the
effectiveness of the cork. It is also a very waterproof insulator.

Rubber

The flexibility of the rubber gives it a very great functionality, as it tends to withstand a
large amount of deformation without breaking, and it reaches its original shape again. Foam
rubber is also an insulating material, which in turn works as a sound insulator.

Ceramics

It is a good insulator with low moisture absorption and high impact resistance. It is
frequently used in the electrical engineering industry.

Aluminum oxide

It is used for fire proof insulating parts and for spark plug insulation.

Plastic

It’s one of the better insulators, since the tightness of the union of its particles makes it
almost impossible for electrons to be released.
 FERRO – ELECTRIC MATERIALS:

Ferro electricity refers to the creation of large induced dipole moment in a weak electric
field as well as the existence of electric polarization even in the absence of an applied electric
field. Crystalline dielectric materials which posses a permanent electric polarization are called
ferroelectric materials have electric dipole moment even in the absence of any field. Normally
they are anisotropic crystals which exhibit spontaneous polarization.
Examples:
• Barium Titanate (BaTiO3 )
• Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KDP)
• Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NH4H2 PO4 )
• Lithium Niobate (LiN6O3 )
PbTiO3
 Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
 Triglycine Sulphate
 PVDF
 Lithium tantalite etc.

Application of Ferroelectric Materials

Ferroelectric materials have many applications, including:

 Thermistors
 Oscillators
 Non-volatile memory
 Filters
 Capacitors
 Light deflectors
 Transchargers
 Electro-optic materials
 Modulators
 Piezoelectrics
 Display etc

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
Solids which have an energy gap of three eV or more are termed as insulators. In these
materials, it is almost not possible to excite the electrons from the valence band to
conduction band by an applied field. Generally dielectrics are also called as insulators,
thereby poor conductors of electricity. However they allow movement of some electrons at
abnormally high temperatures, causing a small flow of current. Dielectrics are non-metallic
materials of high specific resistance ρ, negative temperature coefficient of resistance (-α),
and large and insulation resistance. Insulation resistance will be affected by moisture,
temperature, applied electric field and age of dielectrics.
 Dielectric materials are electrically non-conducting materials such as glass, ebonite,
mica, rubber, wood and paper. All dielectric materials are insulating materials. The difference
between a dielectric and an insulator lies in their applications.
If the main function of non-conducting material is to provide electrical insulation, then they
are called as insulator. On the other hand, if the main function of non- conducting material is
to store electrical charges then they are called as dielectrics.

Properties
1. The dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high resistivity.
2. The have a very large energy gap (more than 3eV).
3. All the electrons in the dielectrics are tightly bound to their parent nucleus.
4. As there are no free electrons to carry the current, the electrical conductivity of dielectrics is
very low.
5. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance and high insulation resistance.

Fundamental definitions and properties of electric dipole

A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges n(+q, -q) separated by a distance (d) is
called an electric dipole.

Dipole moment(Μ)

The product of the magnitude of the charge (q) and distance between two charges (d) is called
as dipole moment.
Dipole moment = qd (coulomb-metre)

Permittivity (Ε)
The permittivity represents the dielectric property of a medium. It indicates easily polarisable
nature of material. Its unit is farad/metre

Dielectric constant (εr)

A dielectric characteristic of a material is determined by its dielectric constant. It is a measure
of polarisation of the dielectrics.
Definition
It is the ratio between absolute permittivity of the medium (ε) and permittivity of free space
(εo). Dielectric constant =Absolute permittivity(ε)/ Permittivity of free space (ε o)
εr= ε/εo
CONCEPT OF POLARIZATION
Definition
The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by the application of an external
electrical field is called polarization in dielectrics.

Polarisability (α)
It is found that the average dipole moment field (E). It is found that the average dipole moment
field (E).
μαE
or μ= αE
Where (α) is the polarisability.
α = μ/E
Polarisability is defined as the ratio of average dipole moment to the electrical field applied. Its

unit is farad /m2.

Polarization vector

It is defined as the average dipole moment per unit volume of a dielectric. If N is the
number atoms per unit volume of a dielectric and (μ) is average dipole moment per atom,
then

Types of dielectric polarization:

Threre are four types of dielectric polarization
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational polarization
4. Space charge polarization

1. Electronic polarization
The polarization occurred due to displacement of positive charge and negative charge in
dielectric material is called electronic polarization.

Figure shows the charge distribution of an atom in absence of electric field while figure
b show the charge distribution in presence of external electrical field.this process occurred
 throughout the material's and as a whole material is polarised.As the nucleus and the cloud of
charge density is seperated by small distance so dipole moment is induce in each atom . The
induced dipole moment μ is proportional to the external field E.
The induced dipole moment μ=αe E
Where αe- electronic polarizability.

2. Ionic polarization
Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of cations (+ ve ions) and anions (- ve ions)
in opposite directions(e.g. NaCl crystal) by the influence of external field.Ionic polarization
occurred only in those dielectric material in which atoms contain ionic bonds. When such a
material is placed in an external electric field the separation between positive charge and
negative charge is seperated through larger distance compare to original length.
When an electric field (E) is applied on an ionic dielectric, there is shift of one ion with respect
to another from their mean position. The positive ion displace in the direction of applied
electric field through the distance x 1. The negative ions displace in opposite direction trough
the distance x2 as shown in fig.

We assume that there is one cation and one anion in each unit cell of that ionic crystal.
Hence, the net distance between two ions
x = x1 + x2 ------------- (1)
When the ions are displaced from their mean position in their respective directions the
restoring forces appear which tend to ions back to their mean position. The restoring force
produced is proportional to the
displacement.

3.Orientational polarization
Orientational polarization takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics
have molecules with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of external electric
field. When the polar dielectrics are subjected to external electric field, the molecular dipoles
are oriented in the direction of electric field.
The contribution to polarization due to orientation of molecular diploes is called
orientational polarization. Orientational polarization depends upon temperature when the
temperature is increased , thermal energy tends to disturb the alignment.
4. Space-charge polarization
Space-charge polarization occurs due to accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at
the interfaces of multiphase dielectric material.When such materials subjected to an electrical
 field at high temperature, the charges get accumulated . These charges create diploes.As a
result, polarization is produced. This kind of polarization is known as space-charge
polarization. Space-charge polarization is very small when compared to other polarization
mechanisms and it is not common in most of the dielectrics.
e.g- ferrites and semiconductors.

FREQUENCY AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF POLARIZATION

MECHANISM
Frequency dependence of polarization:
On application of an alternating field across the material, the polarization occurs as
function of time
i.e., P(t) = P(m) ( 1-exp(- t / t r )
Where Pm is the maximum polarization attained due to applied field and t is the relaxation time.
Which is the time taken for a polarization process to reach 0.63 of the maximum value. The
relaxation times are different for different kinds of polarization mechanisms.
• Electronic polarization is very fast and is completed at any instant of time even when the
frequency of the voltage is very high in the optical range (1015 Hz). Thus it occurs at all
frequencies.

• Ionic Polarization is slower and the ions do not respond when the voltage corresponds to
visible optical frequencies, i.e., the electric field changes in polarity at very fast, so that the
ions are not able to reorient themselves due up to the field. So the ionic polarization does not
occur at visible optical frequencies. It occurs only at frequencies less than 1013 Hz.

• Orientation Polarization is even slower than ionic polarization and occurs only at electrical
frequencies (audio and radio frequencies 106 Hz).

• Space-charge polarization is the slowest process because the ions have to diffuse (jump) over
several inter atomic distances. This occurs at very low frequencies of 50 - 60 Hz (power
frequencies).

Thus at low frequencies all the four polarizations will occur and the total polarization is
very high, but at high frequencies, the value of the total polarization is very small. The
following graphs show the frequency dependence of polarization mechanism and the
corresponding power losses at those frequencies.

Temperature dependence of polarization:

Electronic and ionic polarizations are independent of temperature and the orientation
and space charge polarizations are dependent of temperature. Orientation polarization is
inversely proportional to the temperature.
 Orientation polarization decreases when temperature increases. Because the random
nature decreases the tendency of permanent dipoles to align along the field direction. Thus the
dielectric constant increases. Space charge polarization is directly proportional to the
temperature. The space charge polarization increases with increase the temperature. It is
because of the fact that the thermal energy helps to overcome the activation barrier and the
ions diffuse easily, this results in decrease of dielectric constant.

Dielectric breakdown
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field and if the electric field is increased, when
the field exceeds the critical field, the dielectric loses its insulating property and becomes
conducting. i.e., large amount of current flows through it. This phenomenon is called dielectric
breakdown.
The electric field strength at which the dielectric breakdown occurs is known as dielectric
breakdown.
The dielectric strength = Dielectric voltage / Thickness of dielectric

Types of dielectric breakdown

1. Intrinsic or avalanche breakdown

2. Thermal breakdown
3. Chemical and electrochemical breakdown
4. Discharge breakdown
5.. Defect breakdown

1. Intrinsic breakdown

When dielectric is subjected to electric field then the electrons in the valance band
acquire sufficient energy and go to conduction band by crossing the energy gap and hence
become conduction electrons. Therefore large current flows and it is called intrinsic
breakdown or zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown
These conduction electrons on further application of field then collide with the valance
electrons in the co-valent band and remove more electrons hence transferring them as
conduction electrons.
These secondary conduction electrons again dislodge some other bound electrons in the
valance band and this process continues as a chain reaction. Therefore very large current
flows through the dielectrics and hence called as avalanche breakdown.

Characteristics of Avalanche breakdown

• It can occur at lower temperatures.

• It requires relatively large electric fields.
• This kind of breakdown occurs in thin samples. It occurs within short span of time.

2. Thermal breakdown
In general, when a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, heat is generated. This
generated heat is dissipated by the dielectric. In some cases the heat generated will be very
high compared to the heat dissipated. Under this condition the temperature inside the
dielectric increases and heat may produce breakdown. This type of breakdown known as
thermal breakdown.
Characteristics of Thermal breakdown

• It occurs at higher temperatures.

• It requires moderate electric fields.
• It depends on the size and shape of the dielectric material. It occurs in the order of
milliseconds.

3.Chemical and electrochemical breakdown

This type of breakdown is almost similar to the thermal breakdown. If the temperature is
increased mobility of ions will increase and hence the electrochemical reaction may be
induced to take place.
Therefore when mobility of ions increased, insulation decreases and hence dielectrics becomes
conducting. This type of breakdown is called as chemical and electrochemical breakdown.
Characteristics of Chemical and electrochemical breakdown
• It occurs only at low temperatures.It depends on concentration of ions, magnitude of leakage
current.
• It occurs even in the absence of electric field.
4. Discharge breakdown
Discharge breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains occluded air bubbles as shown
in fig. when this type of dielectric subjected to electrical field, the gases present inside the
material will easily ionize and thus produce large ionization current. This is known as
discharge breakdown.
Characteristics of Discharge breakdown
• It occurs at low voltages.
• It occurs due to the presence of occluded air bubbles.
• It depends upon the frequency of the applied voltage.
5. Defect breakdown
Some dielectric have defects such as cracks, pores, blow holes etc. these vacant position may
have moisture which leads to breakdown called as defect breakdown.

Dielectric loss
If a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, the electrical energy is absorbed by the dielectric
and certain quantity of electrical energy is dissipated in the form of heat energy. This is
known as dielectric loss.
I

900
90
0

Power loss PL=VI cosϴ

ϴ=90-δ

PL=VI cos(90-δ)
PL=VIsinδ----------------------------------------------------------(1)
We know V=IR

I=
If the capacitive reactance is Xc,

I= ----- (2)
Substituting eqn (2) in equation (1)
Power lossPL=V2sinδ /Xc---------------------------------------- (3)

We know frequency f=

Xc = ----- (4)
Substituting eqn (4) in eqn(3) we get
PL=2πfCV2sinδ If δ is very small,
then sin δ= tanδ
Power lossPL=2πfcV2tanδ
Where tanδ is called the power factor of the dielectric .The power loss is dependent on tanδ if the other
factors voltage,frequency ,capacitance are kept constants.
Remedies for breakdown mechanisms

To avoid breakdown, the dielectric material should have the following properties.
1.It should have high resistivity.
2.It must possess high dielectric strength.
3.It should have sufficient mechanical strength. Dielectric loss should be low.
4.Thermal expansion should small. It should be fire proof.
5.It should resistive to oils, liquids and gases. It must have less density. There should not be any
defects. It must be in pure form.

Commonly used dielectric materials and its applications

Some of the applications of dielectrics are as follows-

• These are used for energy storage in capacitors.

• To enhance the performance of a semiconductor device, high permittivity dielectric materials are
used.
• Dielectrics are used in Liquid Crystal Displays.
• Ceramic dielectric is used in Dielectric Resonator Oscillator.
• Barium Strontium Titanate thin films are dielectric which are used in microwave tunable devices
providing high tunability and low leakage current.
• Parylene is used in industrial coatings acts as a barrier between the substrate and the external
environment.
• In electrical transformers, mineral oils are used as a liquid dielectric and they assist in the cooling
process.
• Castor oil is used in high-voltage capacitors to increase its capacitance value.
• Electrets, a specially processed dielectric material acts as electrostatic equivalent to magnets.