PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

These materials get weakly magnetized when placed in a strong magnetic field. In the absence of
an external magnetic field, the atomic dipole moments are randomly oriented, and the net
magnetic dipole moment is zero.

When external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipole moment tends to align themselves
in the direction of applied magnetic field and the resultant magnetic field inside the
paramagnetic material becomes greater than the applied field. In a non- uniform magnetic field,
paramagnetic materials tend to move from the weaker to the strong region of the external
magnetic field. So, μ> μ0 and μr > 1 (slightly). The paramagnetic materials are
characterized by small and positive susceptibility ( χ m> 0).
The susceptibility of a paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to absolute temperature.
Examples of paramagnetic magnetic materials are aluminium, platinum, chromium, manganese,
nickel, palladium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, oxygen, lithium, tungsten, titanium, potassium,
ferric oxide, etc.
THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM AND CURIE LAW
The classical theory of paramagnetism was developed by Langevin in 1905. He assumed that
dipoles are freely rotating and the interaction between the dipoles is week. So there is no
generation of internal molecular field due to mutual interaction between the atomic magnetic
dipoles. He derived the expression of susceptibility for paramagnetic by using the classical law
of Boltzmann. A paramagnetic gas when subjected to an external magnetic field, the molecular
dipoles try to line up in the direction of the external field but due to thermal agitation, they orient
in a direction making an angle with the magnetic field.

If μm is the magnetic moment of a molecule and θ is the angle made by the magnetic moment
with the direction of the magnetic field B, then potential energy (U) between μm and B is equal
to
μm . ⃗
U = μmBcosθ =−⃗ B

According to Boltzmann statistical theory the probability for a dipole to make an angle between
θ and dθwith the magnetic field is proportional to
μmBcosθ
e
2π sinθ dθ
KT

where K is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. Here 2 π sinθ dθ is the solid angle
between θ and dθ.
The component of the dipole moment in the direction of the external field will be μmcos θ. The
average of μm cos θ is
π μ
e mBcosθ

∫ ( μ¿¿ m cos θ)2 πsinθ

KT
dθ
θ=0
μm ¿cos θ ¿= π
¿
eμ mBcosθ

∫ 2 πsinθ KT d
θ=0

μmB
By putting =x and cos θ = y the limit of integration for y changes from +1to -1 because cos
KT
0= +1 and cos π =−1
−1
−∫ y e dy
xy

+1
Now ¿cos θ ¿=¿ −1

−∫ e dy
xy

+1

=
[ e x + e−x 1
−
e x + e−x x ]
[
= cot h x−
1
x ]
[
The function cot h x−
1
x ]
is called the Langevin function and is represented by L(x).
Now μm ¿cos θ ¿=μ mL(x)

If N is the number of molecules per unit volume then total magnetic moment per unit volume
(M) will be
M = N μm ¿cos θ ¿=¿ N μm L(x)
If x =[ ]
μm B
KT
is large, i.e., for high field strengths or low temperature the
function approaches the saturation value unity. In this situation,
all the magnetic dipoles are aligned in the direction of external field and
saturation value of magnetization M s =(μ¿¿ m N)¿ is obtained.

[ ]μ B
If x m is small, i.e., for low field strength or high temperature
KT

μm B
X<<1 or <<1.
KT

Under these situations the Langevin function

[ ] 1 x μm B
2
1 1 x
L(x) =cot h x− = 1+ − = =
x x 3 x 3 3 KT
2 2
Nμ m B Nμ m μ0 H
Hence M = =
3 KT 3 KT

The paramagnetic volume susceptibility

2
Nμ μ
χ m= M = m 0 = C
H 3 KT T
Equation is known as Curie law and C is known Curie constant.
Thus, the magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic materials without particular magnetic
interactions obeys this law.
Thus for paramagnetic substance susceptibility χ m is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature. The variation of susceptibility χ m with temperature T for paramagnetic substance is
shown.
Ferromagnetic Materials
A ferromagnetic material exhibits a strong attraction to magnetic field and is able to retain its
magnetic properties after the external magnetic field has been removed. Ferromagnetic
materials have permanent magnetic dipole moment and shows magnetism even in the absence of
any external field.
This permanent alignment is due to exchange coupling between neighbouring atomic dipoles.
They are strongly attracted by magnetic fields. Permanent magnets are made of these materials.
For ferromagnetic materials, the relative permeability μr is extremely large( μr ≫ 1¿ .
The reason behind it is the existence of magnetized domain. The susceptibility χ m of the
ferromagnetic materials is high and positive. The susceptibility of the ferromagnetic material
varies with temperature in a complex manner depending upon the strength of the magnetic field.
The susceptibility increases with temperature for weak external field but decreases for strong
values of magnetic field.

Beyond, a certain temperature known as Curie temperature the ferromagnetic materials behave
as paramagnetic material and below which they behave as ferromagnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic materials show hysteresis,
behavior. Examples of ferromagnetic magnetic materials are Iron, Nickel, Steel, Cobalt.

Domain Theory
A ferromagnetic material, in general contains a number of small region known as domain.
Domain is a very small region(≈ 10−8 m3) but contains about 1011 atomic dipoles. Within a
domain all atoms are arranged with, their magnetic moment parallel.
The boundaries between the adjacent domains consist of thin regions called domain walls or
Bloch walls.

In absence of external magnetic field, the direction of magnetic moments

in different domains are oriented randomly in different directions.
For weak magnetic field · For weak magnetic field the Bloch walls move in such a way that the
favorably-oriented domain growing in size at the cost of opposing domains . In strong magnetic
field all the magnetic moment within a single domain changes direction in such a way that
opposing domain suddenly becomes a favorable domain.
For very strong magnetic field all magnetic moments are in the direction of magnetizing field.

The direction of magnetisation in different domains are different. Within each domain all dipoles
are aligned but the direction of alignment varies from one domain to another. For an
unmagnetised material the vector some of magnetisation of all domains is zero. Within each
domain the spontaneous magnetization is due to the existence of molecular field or Weiss
molecular field .
When a ferromagnetic sample is in unmagnetized state the domains are nearly randomly oriented
which is shown but under external magnetic field the domains become aligned as shown.

Weiss Molecular Field Theory and Curie - Weiss Law

In the derivation of Curie law for paramagnetism, Langevin's assumed that there is no interaction
between the atomic magnetic dipoles. But magnetic materials poses various magnetic
interactions between magnetic dipoles. A ferromagnetic substance contains in general a number
of small regions, known as domains which are spontaneously magnetized. Within each domain,
the spontaneous magnetization is due to the existence of molecular field or Weiss molecular
field.
According to the Weiss molecular field theory, magnetic materials possess various magnetic
interaction between magnetic dipoles. If a ferromagnetic substance is placed in an external
magnetic field then effective magnetic field

Beff =B+ λ M =μ0 H + λ M

Here λ M is the molecular field or popularly known as Weiss molecular field.

2
N μm B
From Eq. we know that M =
3 KT

By inserting Beff into this magnetic field , we have

 2 2 2
N μ m (B+ λ M ) N μ m B N μm λ M
M= = +
3 KT 3 KT 3 KT

( )
2
N μm λ N μ 2m B N μ 2m μ0 H
M 1− = =
3 KT 3 KT 3 KT

The magnetic susceptibility then becomes

2
N μm μ 0
M N μ 2m μ0
( ) 3K
2
N μm λ
χm = = / 1− =¿
H 3 KT 3 KT
( T−
N μ 2m λ
3K )
C
¿
T −θF
2 2
N μ m μ0 Nμ λ
where C= and θ F = m
3K 3K

This relation Eqn. is known as Curie-Weiss law and θ F is called ferromagnetic Curie
temperature.

The Curie- Weiss law for paramagnetic substance is also

C
χ m= where θ P is paramagnetic Curie temperature.θ P is few degree higher than θ F .
T −θP
The Weiss theory does not distinguish between the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic Curie
temperature.
The temperature at which a ferromagnetic material losses its magnetic property is called the
Curie temperature and it is different for every metal . For example , the Curie temperature for
iron is about 1040 K and for nickel it is about 623 K . Gadolinium is ferromagnetic at low
temperature and its Curie temperature is about 289 K.
For T > θ F the spontaneous magnetization vanishes and the material becomes paramagnetic.
The Curie-Weiss law shows a singularity at T =θ F . The magnetic susceptibility approaches to
infinity.
For T<θ F , the magnetic susceptibility is negative and Curie –Weiss law is not applicable
because in the absence of external magnetic field the ferromagnetic materials gets magnetized.
The variation of susceptibility χ m with temperature T for ferromagnetic substance is shown in
figure.

Hysteresis
The magnetization behaviour of the ferromagnetic material by applying an external magnetic
field H is shown in figure. The magnetization curve is known as hysteresis car or hysteresis loop.
The loop is generated by measuring magnetic induction B of a ferromagnetic material while the
external field H is changed. The initial increase of magnetization starts at the origin( the
unmagnetised state), o and it reaches maximum value known as saturation magnetization( Bs ¿ .
At point a almost all magnetic domains are and the material has reached the point of magnetic
saturation. During the process reducing magnetic field the magnetization B does not retrace the
original path ao but follows a new path ab,ie, it does not becomes zero when H=0. This is called
residual magnetisation ( Br ¿ or retentivity or remanence.

The retentivity of a ferromagnetic material measures its ability to retain its magnetization when
the magnetising field is withdrawn. Intensity of the rivers field just sufficient to completely
destroy the residual magnetization in a ferromagnetic material is known as its coercivity. The
reversed magnetic field gradually decreases the residual magnetization (follow the path bc) and
finally becomes zero for a particular value of H which is named the coercive force or sometimes
called coercivity of the material. The force (H=oc) in negative direction is the coercive force
required
to remove the residual magnetism from the material. The hysteresis loop is completed after a
cyclic application of the external magnetic field. In the figure the closed loop abcdefa is called
the hysteresis loop and is the characteristic of the magnetic properties of the material. Hence ,
the important parameters are Bs , B r , H c . In particular large Br means a strong magnet.

The shape hysteresis curve of the ferromagnetic materials gives the information about
susceptibility, permeability, retentivity and coercivity and energy loss per cycle. The area
enclosed by hysteresis loop is proportional to the energy dissipated as heat in the
irreversible process of magnetising and demagnetising in a complete cycle. Upon the area
of hysteresis loop, the magnetic materials
are classified as hard magnetic materials and soft magnetic materials.
For hard magnetic materials coercivity and retentivity are high. They have large
hysteresis loop area ,so high energy losses. High retentivity makes the magnets strong
and high coercivity gives them protection against demagnetisation due
to temperature fluctuations and stray magnetic field.
Magnetic materials are used in permanent magnet . Hard magnetic materials like high
carbon steel and other low alloy tungsten and chromium steel are used as permanent
magnets. Hard magnetic materials are used in devices like telephones,loud speakers,
screwdrivers ,toys etc. They are used as a permanent magnet in instruments like
galvanometers ,voltameter, ammeters etc. Examples of some hard magnetic materials are
alnico (Al-Ni-Co)alloys,Cunife(Cu-Ni-Fe) alloys Stelloy (Fe-Si)Carbon steel ,inver,
Cobalt etc. For soft magnetic materials permeability and susceptibility are high but
coercivity and retentivity are low. They have small hysteresis loop area, so low energy
loses. The soft magnetic materials are easily magnetized and demagnetized .

Soft magnetic materials are used in devices that are subjected to alternating magnetic
field and in which energy losses must be low. Soft magnetic materials are used as
temporary magnet nets in transformer core at low frequencies ,chokes ,etc. They are used
in devices like telephony instruments magnetic memory etc. Soft magnetic materials like
Fe-Ni alloys are used in communication equipment ,Ni-Zn ferrites are used in audio and
TV transformers. Magnetic materials are used in switching circuits, shift registers.
Examples of soft magnetic materials are Silicon- iron(97-Fe,3-Si), perm alloy(55-Fe,45-
Ni),
magnetic mild steel etc.

Anti-Ferromagnetic Materials
Like ferromagnets, anti-ferromagnet plays an important role in magnetisation. Anti-
ferromagnetic substances are feebly magnetized when subjected to strong magnetic field.
Examples of anti-ferromagnetic materials are Cr, Mn, FeO, MnO, NiCl 2,FeCl 2. In anti-
ferromagnetic material the magnetic moments pointing in one direction are balanced by the other
magnetic moment which pointing in the opposite direction. As a result the material has no
magnetization. Theoretically Neel and Bitter, first investigated the anti-ferromagnetism system
and later Vleck extended the theory. Susceptibilities of anti-ferromagnetic materials are positive
and high. The variation of susceptibility ( χ ¿¿ m)¿ with T for anti-ferromagnetic materials is
shown in figure. Susceptibility increases with increasing temperature and reaches a maximum
value for a particular temperature called the Neil temperature (T N ) and then temperature
according to Curie -Weiss law. Above the Neel temperature materials behave like a
paramagnetic substance.
FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS AND FERRITES
Ferrimagnets are materials which have a net moment, but the dipoles are not all aligned. For
ferrimagnetic substance, the atomic dipole in upward direction are not equal in magnitude to that
of the downward direction as shown in figure.
So there is a net magnetization in one direction .In ferromagnetic substances, the net
magnetization is large as compared to anti-ferromagnetic substances. The resultant unequal
magnitude of dipoles gives the magnetization , macroscopically it is equal to ferromagnet.
Examples of ferromagnetic materials are ferrites which consist of mainly ferric oxide,
combined with one or more oxides of divalent metals. The chemical formula is
Fe3 O4∨FeO . Fe 2 O3 and the Curie temperature is about 580° C. When one replaces the divalent
ferrous ion by another divalent metal such as Co, Ni, Cu, Mg one obtains ferrite which belong
to more general class XO. Fe2 O3 (where X stands for Co, Ni, Cu, Mg, etc.). Garnets are
complicated but have similar structure. The structure of Iro garnet [ Yttrium iron garnet(YIG)] is
Y 3 Fe2 ¿ or Y 3 Fe5 O12 and behaves a ferromagnetic substance with Curie temperature 550 K.
APPLICATION OF FERRITES
Ferrite was the basis of the first generation of solid state computer fast memories. For practical
application , two types of ferrites are used (i) soft and (ii) hard ferrite. Soft ferrites are used for
logic operation device in computer core ,switching device , audio visual device and magnetic
recording media. The Ni-ferrite, Co-ferrite are used for making microwave device like
modulators, phase shifters, couplers, etc. Mn - Zn ferrites are used for operations upto 500 kHz
and Ni-Zn ferrites are used for high frequency operation upto 100 MHz.

For making permanent magnets hard ferrites are used. Hard ferrites are used in
loudspeaker ,telephonic ringers, generator relays, toys, door closer, etc.
Magnetic Storage
In the last few years in the area of information storage , magnetic materials play an important
role. In computes , magnetic disks are major parts for storing large quantity of information at
low cost.

Magnetic Properties of Materials

groups under the following headings. Diamagnetic materials are those in which have The
magnetism of materials is mainly and outcome of the interactions of magnetic moments of their
constituent atoms or molecules. Magnetic properties of solid can be divided into no permanent
magnetic dipole moment. When a specimen of diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field
H, in net magnetic moment is induced in it which is proportional to H but oppositely directed.
Diamagnetism occurs from induce magnetic moment. The negative magnetism may arise due to
additional induced field. For diamagnetic material the susceptibility( χ ¿¿ m)¿ is negative and
permeability(μ¿¿ r )≤¿ 1.
Examples of diamagnetic materials are Cu, Au, Ag, H 2, Pb, Zn, Si, etc.

Paramagnetic materials are those in which the atoms have permanent magnetic dipole moment.
Paramagnetic results when spin magnetic moment orient themselves in an applied magnetic field
full stop in a zero magnetic field the movements are randomly oriented hence zero magnetization
occurs. When an external magnetic field is applied to the material the resultant torque on the
dipoles tends to align them with the field therefore producing a net(M) magnetization parallel to
H. For paramagnetic materials(μ¿¿ r )≥1 ¿ and susceptibility ( χ ¿¿ m)¿ is positive. Examples of
paramagnetic materials are Pt,Al,Cr,Mn, etc.

Ferromagnetic materials are those in which the atoms have permanent magnetic dipole moment
like paramagnetic materials. However in such materials there are strong interactions between the
individual magnetic moments of various atoms formed domains. The total magnetic field inside
a ferromagnetic nearly
times greater than the applied field.
For film magnetic materials,(μ¿¿ r )≥1 ¿ and susceptibility( χ ¿¿ m)¿ are typically of order
3 4
10 or 10 ever greater. Examples of ferromagnetic substances are Fe,Ni,Co, Steel etc.

Magnetization(M)

The magnetic moment per unit volume is known as magnetic polarization or magnetization. In a
magnetic material the atomic dipoles are in general orientation in various directions. The net
dipole moment(m) is the vector sum of all dipoles (∑ mi ¿. The magnetization is
i

∑ mi
then M = i
V.
In gases the field acting on the particle is equal to external field with a good
approximation. But in liquids and solids the atoms are closely surrounded by other atoms
so internal field or local field is actually the sum of the electric field created by
neighbouring atoms and the applied field. When a dielectric material is subjected to an
applied electric field, interfield acting on the atoms or molecules of dielectric substance
is the resultant of external electric field and electric field produced by the dipoles.

Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux Density(B)

Magnetic Induction B represents the magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance
that is subjected to a field H. The unit of B is Tesla or Wb /m2 .
The magnetic field strength and flux density are related, B= μH , where μ is called magnetic
permeability. In vacuum , B= μ0H where μ0 is permeability of vacuum.

Magnetic Permeability ( μ )
The degree to which the lines of force of the external magnetic field can penetrate through the
medium or material is known as magnetic permeability. Permeability
B
( μ ) = , where B is the flux density and H is the magnetic field intensity.
H
If μ0 is the permeability in free space or vacuum and is the relative permeability then
μ
μ=μ 0 × μ r or, μr =
μ0

the value of μ0 is 4 π × 10−7 Henry /m or Wb /ampere−m .

Magnetic Susceptibility( χ ¿¿ m)¿

The magnetization of ordinary materials exhibits a linear functional relation with testing H. The
ratio of M to H is known as magnetic susceptibility, ¿ χ m
M
χm=
H
Magnetic susceptibility of a substance refers to the ability of the substance to acquire
magnetization when placed in a magnetic field. Ordinary weak magnetic substance
follows M= χ m H but strong magnetic substance magnetization involves higher terms of H. The
field dependencies of magnetization of (a) diamagnetic ,(b) paramagnetic and (c) ferromagnetic
materials are shown.
Relation between B, H and M
From Ampere's law we know that Curl⃗ B = μ0 ⃗J , where J is known as total current density. J is
the sum of free current density ( J free ) and bound current density ( J bound ).

Free currents are ordinary conduction currents and bound currents are associated with
molecular or atomic magnetic moments.
So Curl⃗ B= μ0( ⃗J bound + ⃗J free )
In a material medium the bound current J bound can be written as

⃗J bound = Curl⃗
M

Curl⃗ M + ⃗J free )
B= μ0 ¿Curl⃗

or, ⃗J free = Curl

⃗
[
B ⃗
μ0
−M
]
If we now define a vector field ⃗ H such that

⃗
B
⃗
H= -⃗M
μ0
B = μ0 ( ⃗
or , ⃗ H +⃗
M)

Equation is so general that it is valid for any medium.

We know that M= χ m H
B = μ0 ( ⃗
or,⃗ H + χ m⃗
H ) = μ0 ⃗
H (1+ χ m )

or, ⃗
B= μ⃗
H = μ0 ⃗
H (1+ χ m )

or, μ= μ0 (1+ χ m)

μ
or, μr = =1+ χ m
μ0

Magnetic Moment of an Electron and Bohr Magneton

Consider an atom in which an electron is revolving in a circular orbit of radius R around a

positive charged nucleus . The orbital motion of the electron around the nucleus may be
considered as a current loop. As a result , an atom possesses magnetic dipole moment and hence
behaves as a magnetic dipole.
The circulating current i = charge /time period = e /τ
Where e is the magnitude of the charge of an electron and τ is the period of
revolution of the electron .If ʋ is the linear velocity of the electron then
2 πr
τ=
ʋ

eʋ
So, i=
2 πr
The magnetic moment of a dipole is μm =iA
Where A is the face area of the orbit.

Now μm =iA
Where A is the face area of the orbit.
eʋ 2 1
Now μm =iA= ×π r = eʋr
2 πr 2
L
The orbital angular momentum of the electron in the orbit is given by

L=m ʋr

In quantum mechanics (Bohr model) orbital angular momentum (L) is quantized in unit of h⃗ , i.e.,
L=m ʋr = n h⃗ (where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.)

nh
¿, ʋ r=
m
ne ⃗h e ⃗h
Now , putting the value ʋ r in Eq. we get μm = =n
2m 2m
e ⃗h
The least value of magnetic moment is .
2m

e ⃗h
The quantity is called Bohr magneton. It is denoted by μ B. The relationship between the
2m
magnetic moment and angular momentum operator is written as
e
μm = L
2m
e
The term is known as gyromagnetic ratio.
2m
−e ⃗
and in vector form ⃗ μm = L
2m
For circular orbit angular momentum L is perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, magnetic
moment μm is also perpendicular to the plane but in opposite direction to that of L.This is
because electron has a negative charge current flows in a direction opposite to that of the motion
of the electron. Thus the magnetic moment of the loop is anti parallel to the angular momentum.
The magnitude of the Bohr magneton is very important in magnetic science and its value is
given in SI unit as μ B=9.274 × 10−24 A m2.
Bohr magneton is defined as the magnetic dipole moment with an atom due to the orbital
motion of an electron revolving in the first Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
All magnetic materials maybe classified into three categories according to their response to
external magnetic field, their susceptibility value and orientation of the dipoles. There are:
1) diamagnetic materials ; 2)Paramagnetic materials ; 3) ferromagnetic materials. Few materials very
close to ferromagnetic materials, exhibit different magnetic behaviour .They are
4) anti-ferromagnetic materials and 5) ferrimagnetic materials.
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
These materials are very feebly repelled by the magnetic field . They have no permanent dipole
moment but when placed in an external magnetic field, a weak magnetic dipole moment is induced
in each atom of the diamagnetic material. In a non-uniform magnetic field, they have a tendency to
move from strong to weak region of the applied external magnetic field. The magnetic field
inside a diamagnetic material is of slightly lesser magnitude than the applied field. So, μ< μ0 and
μr <1. The diamagnetic materials are characterized by negative susceptibility ( χ ¿¿ m<0)¿.

The diamagnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature. Examples of diamagnetic

materials are copper, bismuth, gold ,silver, lead, antimony, mercury, zinc, silicon, water, alcohol,
air, hydrogen, etc.
DIAMAGNETISM AND LARMOR PRECESSION
In the year of 1905, Langevin first explained the behaviour of diamagnetism on the basis of
electron theory . The origin of diamagnetism may be understood on the basis of Lanz's law
which state that when the flux through an electric circuit is changed, an induced current is set up
in such a direction as to oppose the flux change .

The magnetic field of induced current is opposite to the applied magnetic field .This means the
circuit is accompanied by a magnetic moment opposite to the applied magnetic field. This is
equivalent to a diamagnetism caused by the Larmor precession of electrons.

Let ʋ be the speed of an electron revolving in a circular orbit of radius r and angular
frequency ω . The central force acting on the electron is given by (external field B= 0)
2
F c= mʋ =mr ω2
r

Now if an external magnetic field B is applied to the plane of the electron orbit normally an
additional magnetic force (Lorentz force) will act on the electron and is given by

⃗
F l = −e (ʋ⃗ × ⃗
B)

¿ , Fl = −e ʋ B

The total force on the electron will be

⃗
F =⃗
F l+ ⃗
Fc
F=mr ω ∓ e ʋ B
2

Now, by means of some suitable large solenoid we begin creating a field B in the z-direction
dB
uniform over the whole region at any instant of time. While this field is growing at the rate ,
dt
there will be an induced electric field E all around the path . Again we know that
dϕ 2 dB
=π r
dt dt

The line integral of the electric field gives the induced emf ε
−d ϕ
ε= =∫ ⃗
E . dl =2 πrE
dt
( by using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction)
2 dB
or, πr = -2 πrE
dt
−r dB
or, E= .
2 dt
By Newton’s second law of motion
dʋ er
m =- dB
dt 2m
So that we have a relation between the change in ʋ and the change in B:
er
d ʋ= dB
2m

er
Since the radius is constant so the factor is constant .
2m
Therefore, the change in angular velocity
dʋ e
∆ ω= = dB
r 2m
Let ∆ ω denote the net change in ω in the whole process of bringing the field up to the final
value B.
eB
Then ∆ ω=
2m
This change in angular frequency is also known as Larmor frequency.

On application of an external magnetic field the angular frequency is Larmour frequency.

The precessional motion of the orbit like a spinning top about the direction of the applied
magnetic field is known as Larmor precession .

The Larmor precession or Z electron is equivalent to electric current. So

2
∆ ω −Z e B
l =Charge × revolution per unit time= - Ze × =
2π 4 πm
The Larmor frequency is much smaller than the angular frequency of the electron in its orbit. For
the derivation of Larmor frequency we assume that the orbit is not deformed under the influence
of the external field . Under the influence of external field, the angular frequency of the orbital
electron gets change that produces and induce magnetic moment opposite to that of B.

The magnitude of the total induced moment

' 2
M = current × area of the loop of radius (i.e., π R )
2
Ze B
¿− < R2
4m
Here < R2 >¿ [= < x 2> +¿ y 2> ¿+ < z 2> ¿]is the mean square radius of the electron orbits.

Since there are a number of the randomly oriented electrons orbits in the atom that shows that
the charge distribution spherically symmetric, so that
1 2
< x 2≥¿ y 2 >¿= < z 2> ¿or < x 2≥¿ y 2 >¿= < z 2> ¿= < r > ¿.
3
Where ¿ r 2 >¿ =< x 2> +¿ y 2> ¿+ < z 2> ¿

is the mean square distance of the electron from the nucleus.

If the direction of external magnetic field is along the z- axis then

2 2 2 2
< R2 >¿ = < x > +¿ y ≥ < r > ¿.
3

So, the total induced magnetic moment in the atom will be

2 2
' −Z e B 2 2 −Z e B 2
M = <r > < r >¿
4m 3 6m

Now if N the total numbers unit volume then total magnetic moment per unit volume
2
−N Z e B 2
M = <r >¿
6m

Since B= μ0 H ,
2
−N Z e μ0 H 2
M = <r >¿
6m

The magnetic susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance is then

2
M −N Z e μ0 < 2
χm= = r >¿
H 6m
equation shows that the damagnetic susceptibility is negative and is dependent of temperature .

Amperian loop To explain net current we consider a loop known as amperian loop that
encloses four wires of currents