Semester Important Questions

Unit – 5
1. Classify the magnetic materials based on magnetic
materials as dia, para, ferro, anti-ferro, ferri magnetic
materials and explain their properties?
a. Diamagnetism:
The number of orientations of electronic orbits in an atom be
such that the vector sum of magnetic moment is zero. The
external field will cause a rotation action on the individual
electronic orbits. This produce an induced magnetic moment
which is in the direction opposite to the field and hence tends
to decrease the magnetic Induction present in the substance.
Thus the diamagnetism is the phenomenon by which the
induced magnetic moment is always in the opposite direction
of the applied field.
Properties of diamagnetic materials:
a) Diamagnetic materials get magnetized in a direction
opposite to the magnetic field.
b) Weak repulsion is a characteristic of diamagnetism
c) Permanent dipoles are absent.
d) Relative permeability is less than one but positive. This
means that lines of magnetic field become less dense in that
material than in air or vacuum
e) The magnetic susceptibility is negative and small. It is not
affected by Temperature. It does not vary with the
strength of the magnetic field.
f) Diamagnetism is universal i.e., all materials, when exposed
to external magnetic fields, tend to develop magnetic
moments opposite in direction to the applied field. In para
and ferro magnetic materials, diamagnetism is negligibly
small when compared with para and ferro effects.
g) When placed inside a magnetic field, magnetic lines of
forces are repelled.
Paramagnetism:
The number of orientations of orbital and spin magnetic
moments be such that the vector sum of magnetic moments is
not zero and there is a resultant magnetic moment in each
atom even in the absence of applied field. The net magnetic
moments of the atoms are arranged in random directions
because of thermal fluctuations. In the absence of external
magnetic field. Hence, there is no magnetization. If we apply
the external magnetic field, there is an enormous magnetic
moment along the field direction and the magnetic induction
will be increase. Thus induced magnetism is the source of
paramagnetism.
Properties of paramagnetic materials:
a) Paramagnetic materials get magnetized in the direction of
the magnetic field.
b) Weak attraction is a characteristic of paramagnetism.
c) Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic
dipoles.
d) Relative permeability is greater than one but small i.e.,
this indicates that when paramagnetic substance is placed
in a uniform magnetic field, the field inside the material
will be more than applied field.
e) The magnetic susceptibility is small and positive. The
magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetics is inversely
proportional to absolute temperature. i.e., X = C/T this is
called curie law. C is called curie constant.
f) Paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of the applied
field strength.
g) Spin alignment is random.
h) When placed inside a magnetic field, It attracts the
magnetic lines of force.
i) Some of the materials that exhibit paramagnetism ore
Aluminum, manganese, CuCl2, FeCl2, Oxygen.
Ferromagnetism:
Ferromagnetism arises when the magnetic moments of
adjacent atoms are arranged in a regular-order. i.e., all
pointing in the same direction. The ferromagnetic substance
thus possess a magnetic moment even in the absence of the
applied magnetic field; this magnetization is known as the
spontaneous magnetization. There is a special form of
interaction called “exchange coupling” occurring between
adjacent atoms, coupling their magnetic moments together in
rigid parallelism.
Properties of ferromagnetic materials:
a) In ferromagnetism materials, large magnetization occurs
in the direction of the field.
b) Strong attraction is the characteristic of ferromagnetism.
c) They possess spontaneous magnetization.
d) The relative permeability is very high for ferromagnetics.
e) The magnetic susceptibility is positive and very high.
f) Magnetic susceptibility is fairly high and constant up to a
certain temperature above which it varies with
temperature according to the equation X = C/T-Tc . (Curie-
weeiss law) Where C = curies constant Tc = ferromagnetic
curie temperature.
g) Ferromagnetism is due to the existance of magnetic
domains which can be spontaneously magnetized.
h) Exhibits hysteresis.
i) Spin alignment is parallel in the same direction.
j) When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the
magnetic lines of forces very strongly as shown
k) Permanent and electro magnets are made using
ferromagnetic materials
l) Examples: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt & gadolimium.
Antiferro magnetism and properties of antiferro magnetic
materials:
Anti-ferromagnetism arises when the spin magnetic moments
of neighboring atoms are oriented in an anti-parallel order.
In the absence of an external applied magnetic field, the
magnetization of anti-Parallel and equal spin magnetic
moments. By the application of the external magnetic field, a
small magnetization in the direction of the applied magnetic
field take place. This magnetization varies with temperature.
The susceptibility increases with an increase of temperature
up to TN; called the Neel temperature, at Neel temperature –
the magnetization it maximum and above it the
magnetization decreases with increasing Temperature,
according to the relation X = C/T+𝜃.
Where C = curie constant, 𝜃 = paramagnetic curie
temperature.
The decrease of magnetism with an increase temperature is a
property of the paramagnetic substances; Therefore the
specimen becomes paramagnetic above TN. The peak
 occurring in the curve of X vs. T, T = TN is the most
characteristic feature of anti-ferro magnetism.
Examples: MnO, NiO, FeO, FeF2, FeCl2, NiCl2, MnS etc.
Ferrimagnetism and Properties of Ferrimagnetic
materials[Ferrites]:
Ferrimagnetic substance are those in which the atomic or
ionic dipoles in one direction are of unequal magnitudes from
those lined up in opposite direction. This alignment of dipoles
gives a net magnetization and is the property of those
magnetic substance which have two or more different kind of
atoms. In ferrimagnetic materials, there may be large net
magnetization as compared to anti-ferro magnetic materials,
due to the resultant of anti-parallel alignment of
neighbouring dipoles of unequal magnitude.
Ferrimagnetic material, generally known as ferrites consists
of two or more different kind of atoms.
2. Explain the hysteresis phenomenon based on domain
theory of ferro magnetism?

Lagging of Magnetisation (B) behind the Magnetising field(H).

We know when the ferromagnetic material is subjected to
external field, there is increase in the value of the resultant
magnetic moment due to two process.
a. The movement of domain walls.
 b. Rotation of domain walls.
When a weak magnetic field is applied, the domains that are
aligned parallel to the field and in the easy direction of
magnetization grow in size at the expense of less favorably
oriented domains. This results in the Blochwall (or) domain wall
movement and when the weak field is removed the domains
reverse back to their original states. This is reversible wall
displacement is indicated by OA of the magnetization curve.
When the field becomes stronger the domain wall (or) Blochwall
movement continues and it is mostly irreversible movement.
This is indicated by path AB of the graph. The phenomenon of
hysteresis is due to this irreversibility. At the point B all
domains have got magnetized along their easy directions.
Application of still higher fields rotates the domains into the
field direction indicated by BC. Once the domain rotation is
complete the specimen is saturated.
Thus the specimen is said to be attain the maximum
magentisation. At this position, if the external field is removed,
the magnetic induction (B) will not fall rapidly to zero, but falls
to D rather than O. This shows that even when applied is zero
the material still possess some magnetic Induction(OD) which is
called Residual magnetism or Rententivity.
Actually after the removal of the external field, the specimen
will try to attain the original configuration by the movement of
domain wall. But this movement is stopped due to the presence
of Impurities, lattice imperfections. Therefore to overcome this, a
large amount of reverse magnetic field is applied to the
specimen. The amount of energy spent to reduce the
magnetisation (B) to zero is called “coercivity” represented by
OE.
3. Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic materials
Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials
Hard magnetic materials have Soft magnetic materials have
large hysteresis loss due to low hysteresis loss due to small
large hysteresis loop area. hysteresis loop area.
In these materials the domain In these materials the domain
wall movement is difficult wall movement is relatively
because of Impurities and easier. Even for small changes
crystal Imperfections and it is in the magnetizing field,
 irreversible in nature. magnetization changes by
large amounts.
The coercivity and retentivity The coercivity and Retentivity
are large. Hence these are small. These materials can
materials cannot be easily be easily magnetized and
magnetized and demagnetized demagnetized.
In these materials, because of Since these materials free from
the presence of impurities and irregularities, the
crystal imperfections, the magnetostatic energy is very
mechanical strain is more; small.
hence its magnetostatic energy
is large.
These Materials have small These materials have large
values of permeability and values of permeability and
susceptibility susceptibility
They are used to make They are used to make electro
permanent magnets magnets.
Examples: Example:
Iron-Nickel-Aluminium alloys Iron Silicon Alloys
with certain amount of cobalt Ferrous nickel Alloys
called Alnico alloy Ferrites
Copper Nickel Iron Alloys Garnets
Copper Nickel cobalt alloys
Magnet developed from
powdered manganese
Bismuthide
Applications: Applications:
For production of permanent Mainly used in electro-
magnets used in magnetic magnetic machinery and
detectors, microphones, flux transformer cores. They are
meters, voltage regulators, also used in switching circuits,
damping devices and magnetic Microwave isolators and
separators. matrix storage of computers.
4. Distinguish Between Type-I and Type-II super
conductors?
Type 1 Super Conductor Type 2 Super Conductor
They exhibit complete Messiner They exhibit partial Messiner
Effect Effect
They are perfect diamagnetic They are not perfect
diamagnetic
They are known as soft super These are known as hard
 conductors Superconductor
These materials undergo a These material undergoes a
sharp transition from the gradual transition from
superconducting state to the superconducting state to the
normal state at the critical normal state between the two
magnetic field. critical magnetic fields.
The highest value of critical The upper critical field can be
magnetic is 0.1 Wb. of the order of 50 Wb.
They have only one critical They have two critical
magnetic field. magnetic field.
Applications are very limited They are used to generate very
high magnetic field.
Examples – Lead, tin, mercury Examples – alloys like Nb-Sn,
Nb-Ti, Nb-Zr, etc.
5. Discuss general properties of superconductors?
a. Electrical Resistance: A superconductor is characterized by
zero electrical resistivity. Once the current is started to flow,
I will continue for years without any detectable decay even if
the applied voltage is removed.
b. Persistent current: When d.c current of large magnitude is
once induced in a superconducting ring then the current
persists in the ring even after the removal of the field as
shown in figure. This is known as persistent current. This is
dure to the diamagnetic property i.e., the magnetic flux
inside the ring will be trapped in it and hence the current
persists.

c. Critical Temperature
Substances in superconducting state have virtually zero
electrical resistivity. The superconducting transition
temperature Tc of a material is defined as a critical
temperature at which electrical resistivity suddenly drops to
zero. Below Tc the material is a superconductor and above Tc
it behaves as a normal material with finite non zero
resistivity.
 The superconducting transition temperatures of pure metals
range from 0.3 kelvin to 1.25 kelvin. Common alloys have
higher transition temperatures. The Niobium compounds
such as Nb3Sn (Tc = 18.1 kelvin) and Nb3Ge (Tc = 22.65) have
higher transition temperatures. These compounds are
technically important superconductors.
At the transition temperature Tc the following physical
changes are observed in superconducting materials.
a. Electrical resistivity drops to zero.
b. The magnetic flux lines are excluded from the
superconducting material and it becomes a perfect
diamagnet.
c. There is a discontinuity in the specific heat.
d. There are small changes in thermal conductivity and
volumes of the superconducting material.

d. Critical magnetic field (HC):

When superconducting materials are subjected to very large
vale of magnetic field, the superconducting property is
destroyed. The field required to destroy the superconducting
property is called as critical magnetic field (Hc) .
The value of Hc is given by
HC = HO [1 – T2/TC2]
Where H0 is critical field at 0K.
Tc is transition temperature.

From the fig we can find that when the temperature of the
material increases, the value of the critical magnetic field
 decreases. Hence the value of the critical field will be
different for different materials.
e. Critical current (IC)
Suppose a material carries electric current in
superconducting state, this produces a magnetic field. If this
magnetic field exceeds critical magnetic field Hc at that
temperature T (<Tc), then normal resistance will be included
in the material and it will be in the normal state. Hence, it is
not possible to pass large currents through a superconductor.
The maximum current that can be passed through a
superconductor in superconducting state is called critical
current, represented by Ic.
According to Silsbee’s rule, for a superconducting wire 𝐼𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑐
Where Ic is the critical current and r is the radius of the wire.
f. Perfect Diamagnetism – Meissner Effect:
The superconductor is a perfect diamagnet. As the material
which is placed in an uniform magnetic field (whose value is
smaller than the critical magnetic field 𝐻𝑐) , is cooled below Tc
the magnetic flux inside the material is excluded from the
material. This is called MEISSNER EFFECT.
Thus, a material can behave as a superconductor only when
i) The resistivity of the material should be zero
ii) The magnetic induction in the material should be zero
when it is placed in an uniform magnetic field.
g. Thermal Properties:
a) The entropy and specific heat decreases at transition
temperature.
b) The thermal conductivity of type I super conductor is low.
c) The thermo-electric effect disappears in the
superconducting state.
6. State and explain Meissner effect?
When a weak magnetic field is applied to a superconducting
specimen at a temperature below transition temperature TC, the
magnetic flux lines are expelled as shown in fig.
 This effect is reversible, i.e. when the temperature is raised from
below Tc, at T= Tc the flux lines suddenly start penetrating and
the specimen returns back to the normal state. Under this
condition, the magnetic induction inside the specimen is given
by
𝐵 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝑀) ----------- (1)
Where H is the external applied magnetic field and M is the
magnetization produced inside the specimen.
When the specimen is superconducting, according to Meissner
effect, inside the bulk superconductor B = 0. Hence 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝑀) = 0
Or M = -H -------------- (2)
Thus the material is perfectly diamagnetic. Magnetic
susceptibility can be expressed as
𝜒 = M/H = -1 ------------ (3)
Let us consider a superconducting material under normal state.
Let J be the current passing through passing through the
material of resistivity ρ. From Ohm’s law we know that the
electric field E = Jρ. On cooling the material to its transition
temperature ρ tends to 0, If J is held finite E must be zero. From
Maxwell’s equation, we know
× 𝐸 = dB / dt ------------ (4)
Under superconducting condition since E is zero 𝑑𝐵/
dt = 0; or B = constant. This means that the
magnetic flux passing through the specimen should
not change on cooling to the transition temperature.
The Meissner effect contradicts this result.
According to Meissner effect perfect diamagnetism
is an essential property of defining the
superconducting state. Thus
From zero resistivity E = 0
From Meissner effect B = 0
7. Write a short note on
 a) Some important applications of ferrites
(ferrimagnetic materials)
b) Why diamagnetic materials have negative
susceptibility?
Applications of ferrites:
They are used to produce ultrasonics by
magnetization principle.
Ferrites are used in audio and video transformers.
Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase
the sensitivity.
They are also used for power limiting and h armonic
generation.
Ferrites are used in computers and data processing
circuits.
Ferrites are used in switching circuits and in
storage devices of computers.
Ferrites are not metals but their resistivity lies in
the range of insulators or semiconductors.
Diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibility:
In general, a diamagnetic material does not have
permanent magnetic dipoles; the induced magnetization
tends to reduce the total magnetic field. This is why χm is
negative. Materials with complete shells, such as ionic and
covalent bonded crystals, are diamagnetic. Their
diamagnetic behavior is due mainly to the distortion of the
electron orbital motion by the external magnetic
field. Dielectric solids, such as insulating polymers
involving ionic and covalent bonds, are mainly
diamagnetic. Diamagnetic materials generally have an
even number of electrons, so the magnetic effects due to the
up- and down-spins tend to cancel each other out. In a case
such as hydrogen, where there is only one electron in
the s orbital (or s state), the orbital motion's contribution to
the magnetic effect is zero, and the diamagnetic moment is
mainly that of the spin.
8. Explain the concept of bohr magneton. Derive
expression for magnetic moment?
9. What is polarization in dielectrics, explain various
polarization mechanisms in dielectrics? Derive
expression for electronic and ionic polarizabilities?
Let is consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The centre
of positive charge is displaced along the applied field direction
while the centre of negative charge is displaced in the opposite
direction. Thus a dipole is produced. When a dielectric material
is placed inside an electric field such dipoles are created in all
the atoms inside.
“The process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented
along the field direction is called polarization in dielectrics.”
When the strength of the electric field E is increased the strength
of the induced dipole µ is also increases. Thus the induced dipole
moment is proportional to the intensity of the electric field.
i.e., µαE
µ = αE
Where α, the constant of proportionality is called ‘polarizability’.
“It can be defined as induced dipole moment per unit electric
field”.
α=µ/E
Various polarization process:
Polarization occurs due to several atomic mechanisms. When
the Specimen is placed inside a d.c electric field, polarization is
due to four of processes.
a) Electronic polarization
b) Ionic polarization
c) Orientation polarization
d) Space charge polarization
Electronic polarization and Calculation of Electronic
polarizability:
Electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement of
positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons in
opposite directions, when an external electric field is applied,
and there by creates a dipole moment in the dielectric.
The induced dipole moment µαE
µ = αeE
Where αe is the electronic polarizability.
a. Electronic polarizability is proportional to the volume of
atoms
b. Electronic polarizability is Independent of temperature.
Calculation of Electronic Polarizability:
Ionic Polarizability and calculation of Ionic polarizability:
“The ionic polarization is due to the displacement of cations and
anions in opposite directions and occurs in ionic solid.”
The displacement of ions is independent of temperature.
Example: NaCl Crystal
Suppose an electric field is applied in -ve x direction. The
positive ions move to the left by x 1 and the negative ions move to
the right by x2.
Assuming that each unit cell gas one cation and one anion, the
resultant dipole moment per unit cell due to ionic displacement
is given by,
 So, the ionic polarizability is inversely proportional to the
square of the natural frequency of the ionic molecule and to its
reduced mass which is equal to (1/m + 1/M) -1
10. Define the following in magnetism
 a)Magnetic induction b) Magnetic susceptibility c)
magnetic permeability d) magnetic intensity e)
intensity of magnetization.
Magnetic Induction:
The magnetic induction in any material is the number of lines of
magnetic force passing through unit area perpendicularly.
It’s unit is Wb/m2 or Tesla (M.K.S) Gauss (C.G.S)
Magnetic Permeability(µ):
The magnetic permeability of any material is the ratio of the
magnetic induction in the sample to the applied magnetic field
intensity.
µ = B/H
Magnetization (or) Intensity of Magnetization(I):
The term magnetization is the process of converting a non-
magnetic material into a magnetic material. It measures the
magnetization of the magnetised specimen.
“It is also defined as the Magnetic Moment per Unit Volume”.
I = M/V
It’s unit is amp/mt
Magnetic Susceptibility:
The ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) produced to the
magnetic field strength (H) in which the material is placed
X = I/H
Magnetic intensity:
The magnetic field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is
the force experienced by an unit north pole placed at that point.
It’s unit is A m-1.
The magnetic induction B due to a magnetic of intensity (H)
applied in vacuum is related by, B = µoH
Where µO is the permeability of free space. The permeability of
free space has a value of 4π x 10-7 H m-1
11. Define the following in dielectrics
a)Electric dipole and electric dipole moment b)
dielectric constant c) polarization vector d) electric
displacement vector e) electric susceptibility
Electric Dipole and electric dipole moment:
Two equal and opposite charges small in magnitude and
separated by a small distance constitute an electric dipole
Dipole moment: If two charges +q and -q are separated by a
distance dl, then the dipole moment can be defined as “produced
of magnitude of charge and distance between them”.
µ = q.dl
Here Magnitude of both the charges are equal.
a. It is a vector quantity
b. The direction of µ is from -ve charge to +ve charge
Dielectric Constant:
The dielectric characteristics of a material are determined by
the dielectric constant (or) relative permittivity 𝜀𝑟 of that
material.
“Dielectric Constant is the ratio between the permittivity of the
medium and the permittivity of free space.”
𝜀
𝜀𝑟 =
𝜀0
a. Since it is a ratio of same Quantity, 𝜀𝑟 has no unit
b. It is a measure of polarization in dielectric material.
Polarization Vector:
“The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is
called polarization vector P”.
P=µ/V
If µ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the
number of molecule per unit volume, the polarization vector
P = Nµ
The dipole moment per unit volume of the solid is the sum of all
the individual dipole moments with in that volume and is called
the polarization P of the solid.