MANAKULA VINAYAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Material Science/T108

UNIT III
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Origin of atomic magnetic moment – Bohr magneton-Elementary Ideas of classification of magnetic
materials (Dia, Para, Ferro, antiferro & Ferri). – Quantum theory of Para &Ferro Magnetism –
Domain Theory of Hysteresis – Heisenberg Theory of Exchange Interaction (without derivation) –
Qualitative ideas of Anti ferromagnetic Ordering –Structure and Properties of Ferrites – Properties
of Soft & Hard Magnetic Materials –Applications. Magnetic data storage – Magnetic tapes, Hard
disks, Magneto optical recording

PART - A
1. Define magnetic susceptibility () and magnetic permeability (µ).
Magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio between intensity of magnetization to
magnetic field intensity

I
=
H
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio between the magnetic flux density (B) and the
magnetic field intensity (H)
B
=
H
2. Give the significance of Curie-Weiss law.
C
= where C is curie constant and  is the paramagnetic curie temperature. This
T −
explains the relation between para and ferromagnetism.
3. What is Bohr Magneton?
The orbital magnetic moment and spin magnetic moment of the electron are expressed by
atomic unit of magnetic moment is called Bohr magneton.
eh
B = µB = 9.27x10-27 Am2
4m

4. What is domain?
Ferromagnetic material consists of large number of small regions called domains.
Magnetic domain is completely magnetized in single direction.
5. What is hysteresis?
Hysteresis i s the loss of energy taking in taking through a complete cycle of

magnetization. This loss is represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop. The lag of
magnetization behind the magnetizing field.
6. What are hard and soft magnetic materials?
Hard magnetic materials are material which are difficult to magnetise and demagnetize.

Soft magnetic materials which gets easily magnetized and demagnetize.

7. On the basis of spin how the materials are classified as para, fero, antiferro and
ferromagnetic.
i. Paramagnetic materials have few unpaired electron spins of equal magnitudes.
ii. Ferro magnetic materials have many unpaired electron spins with equal magnitudes.

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 MANAKULA VINAYAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Material Science/T108

iii. Anti ferro magnetic materials have equal magnitude of spins but in antiparallel manner.
iv. Ferromagnetic materials have spins in antiparallel manner but with unequal magnitudes.

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 MANAKULA VINAYAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Material Science/T108

8. Give Curie-Weiss law and its importance.

Curie-Weiss law is given by
c
=
T−
where, c – curie constant
T – absolute temperature
 – Curie temperature
Importance: It determines the susceptibility of the magnetic materials in terms of
temperature. If temperature is less than curie temperature Paramagnetic converts to
diamagnetic material and if the temperature is greater than curie temperature ferromagnetic
converts to paramagnetic material.
9. What do you understand by term, magnetic domains and domain walls?
Magnetic domains are the small regions in a ferromagnetic material which has group of
atomic dipoles in same direction. The walls separating these small regions are called as
domain walls.
10. What is hysteresis?.Draw hysteresis loop and show the retentivity and coercivity in it .

Lagging of magnetic induction (B) behind applied magnetic field is hysteresis.

Point B – Retentivity; Point C - Coercivity

11. What are soft and hard magnetic materials.

S.No Soft Magnetic materials Hard Magnetic materials

1. The materials which can be easily The materials which are difficult to
magnetized and demagnetized are magnetized and demagnetized are called
called soft magnetic materials. Hard magnetic materials.
2. They have narrow hysteresis loop They have Broad hysteresis loop
3. Loop area is less and hence Loop area is large and hence hysteresis
hysteresis loss is minimum loss is maximum
4. Eg: Iron, Silicon Alloys, Ferrites etc. Eg: Carbon steel, Tungsten steel,
chromium steel., etc.,
12. Define energy product and give its importance in the case of permanent magnets.
The product of retentivity and the coercivity is known as energy product. It represents the
maximum amount energy stored in the specimen.
Importance: it gives the maximum energy stored in the magnets which helps in distinguishing a
weak and strong magnet; therefore for permanent magnets the value of energy product should
be very high

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 MANAKULA VINAYAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Material Science/T108

13. What are ferrites ?

Ferrites are the modified structure of iron with no carbon in which the magnetic moments
are of unequal magnitudes. They are made by two or more different kinds of atoms; in general
formula is given by X2+Fe23+O4. Where X2+ is a divalent metal ion such as Fe2+, Mg2+, Zn2+etc.
14. State the application of ferrites .
• Ferrites are used in audio transformers, video transformers, radio receivers
• They are used in two port devices such as gyrator, circulator and isolator.
• They are used in computers and data processing circuits.
• They are used in switching circuits and parametric amplifiers.

15. What are the types of energies involved in the growth of magnetic domains?
There are four types of energy involved in domain growth
• Exchange energy,
• Anisotropy energy
• Domain wall energy
• Magneto-strictive energy

16. What is domain theory of ferromagnetism?

According to this a ferromagnetic material consists of number of regions or domains which
are spontaneously magnetized due to parallel alignment of all magnetic dipoles. The direction of
spontaneous magnetization varies domain to domain.

17. What are the different sources of permanent magnetic moment?

• Orbital magnetic moment of electrons
• Spin magnetic moment of electrons
• Spin magnetic moment of nucleus
18. Explain the term remanence and coercivity with its units?
Remanence/Retentivity: It is the residual intensity of magnetization retained by the
specimen even when the external magnetic field is cutoff. Unit: Wbm-2
Coercivity: It is the strength of reverse magnetic field required to completely remove the
residual magnetization (or) demagnetize the material. Unit: Ampere turn/metre.

19. Distinguish between ferro and antiferro magnetic materials

Ferromagentism Antiferromagnetism
All spin magnetic moments are aligned All spin magnetic moments are aligned
parallel in same direction antiparallel
Susceptibility is positive and very large Susceptibility is positive and small
Exhibits hysteresis Does not exhibits hysteresis

20. Define magnetic lines of force and magnetic lines of induction?

Magnetic lines of force: it is defined as the continuous curve in a magnetic field which
travels externally in the magnet from north to south pole.
Magnetic lines of induction: it is the imaginary lines of force which are supposed to travel
from south pole to north pole inside the magnet.

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21. Discuss the orientation of spin for dia, para and ferro-magnetic substances.
Diamagnetic materials: Here the electron spins are randomly oriented and mostly they have
equal and opposite spins. Thus the net magnetic moment is zero.
Paramagnetic material: Here the spins of electrons will not be equal, which leads to have
some unpaired electrons. Hence there exists some resultant magnetic moment. Therefore in
paramagnetic material the net magnetic moment is not zero
Ferromagnetic material: In ferro magnetic materials the number of unpaired electrons will
be more. Hence there exists a large resultant magnetic moment in it.

22.Explain the origin of magnetic moment in a material.

The magnetic moment in a material originates from orbital motion and spinning motion of
electrons.

23.What are the different structures of ferrites?

The three structures of ferrites are
1)spinel
2)garnet
3)hexaferrites

PART - B
1.Discuss the properties and effect of external field on the dia , para and ferro
magnetic materials.
Dia magnetic materials:
In dia magnetic material the electron orbits are more or less random and mostly all the magnetic
moments are cancelled.i.e., they have even number of electrons and has equal number of electron
spinning in opposite directions. Hence the net magnetic moment is zero. They don’t have
magnetism in the absence of field.

Effect of magnetic field:

When the material is kept in the external magnetic field the electron reorient in
such a way they align perpendicular to the field direction and their magnetic
moments opposes the external magnetic field. This will reduce the magnetic induction

present in the specimen (i.e.) the magnet ic lines of force does not pass through the
specimen.
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 Properties:
1. They repel magnetic lines of force.
2. Susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and applied
magnetic field strength.

3. Permeability is less than 1.

4. There is no permanent dipole moment, so they are called weak magnets.

5. When temperature is less than critical temperature diamagnetism

becomes normal material.
Examples: gold germanium, silicon etc.
Para magnetic material:

Fig: Paramagnetic material (a) each atom posses a perma nent magnetic moment
when H = 0, all the magnetic moments are randomly oriented as M = 0. (b) when a
magnetic field is H0 is applied,the magnetic moments tend to orient themselves in
the direction of field resulting a positive susceptibility

In the para magnetic material the re exists some unpaired electrons which give rise to
spin magnetic moment. Hence the resultant magnetic moment will not be zero. In
the absence of field the magnetic moments are oriented randomly. Due to its random
orientation some magnetic moments cancelled and the material posses very less
magnetization in it.
Effect of magnetic field:
When an external field is applied the magnetic moments of individual molecules
reorient itself along the direction of magnetic field and the material ismagnetized.
Properties:
1. The magnetic lines of force pass through the material.
2. Magnetic susceptibility is positive.
3. Permeability is greater than one.
4. They posses permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is less than Curie temperature, paramagnetic mat erials
becomes diamagnetic material.
Examples: CuSO 4, MnSO 4, Platinum etc.
Ferromagnetic materials:
In a ferromagnetic material the number ofunpaired electrons are more . Hence even i
n the absence of magnetic field , the magnetic moments align themselves p arallel to each
other and give rise to magnetic field.
Effect of magnetic field:
To these material even if a small magnetic field is applied, the magnetic moments which
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 are already aligned parallel, reorient itself along the direction of the magnetic field
and they become very strong magnets.
Properties :
1. Since some magnetism already exists in these materials, all the magnetic lines of
force pass through it.
2. They have permanent dipole moment. So they act as strong magnets.
3.They exhibit magnetization even in the absence of external field. this property is
called spontaneous magnetization.
4.Susceptibility is positive and high.
5.When the temperature is greater than Curie temperature, ferromagnetic material
becomes paramagnetic material.
6.Permeability is very much greater than 1. Examples: Ni, Co, Fe etc.
2.Give the comparison of dia, para, ferromagnetic materials.

S.no Diamagnetic material Paramagnetic material Ferromagnetic material

1. No magnetic moment It has permanent magnetic It has permanent mag

moment netic mom ent
2. When the external When the external When the external
magnetic field is magnetic field is applied magnetic field is applied
applied the electrons the electrons will align the electrons which are
will align parallel to the field already aligned parallel
perpendicular to the direction and hence will reorient itself along
field direction and material is magnetised the field direction and will
hence reduce the be easily magnetsied.
magnetic induction
present in the
specimen.
3. They are named as They are said to be strong They are said to be very
weak magnets magnets strong magnets.
4. They repel the magnetic The magnetic lines of The magnetic lines of force is
lines force passes through the highly attracted by material.
material

5. The susce ptibility is The susceptibility is The susceptibility is

negative positive and small positive and large

6. The susceptibility is The susceptibility varies The susceptibility

independent of inversely with absolute depends upon the
temperature temperature. temperature

7. Permeability is less Permeability is greater Permeability is very much

than 1 than 1 greater than 1

8. When temperature When temperature less When temperature

less than critical than curie temperature greater than curie
temperature dia para change to dia temperature ferro change
convert to normal material. to para material.
material.
9. Examples : gold, Examples : platinium , Examples :iron, nickel,
antimony, bismuth, chromiuim , cobalt, steel, etc.
water, hydrogen, aluminium, copper
alcohol sulphate,

3.Explain the domain theory of ferromagnetism? Domain theory:

Weiss proposed the concept of domain in order
7 to explain the properties of ferro magnetic
materials. According to him a single crystal of ferro magnetic material consists of large
number of small regions called Domains.
In ferromagnetic materials inside the domain all the magnetic moments are aligned
in the same direction. The boundaries which separates different domains are called
domain walls or Bloch walls.

In the absence of t he external field the dipole moment of each domain are in
random direction. When external field is applied the following process takes place.
1. Movement of domain walls
2. Rotation of domains
Movement of domain walls:
Under weak external field the domain which are parallel to the field direction will
move as shown in fig. The boundaries of domains are displaced.

Rotation of Domains:
When strong magnetic field is applied all the domains will rotate towards the field
direction as shown in fig. If the app lied field is weak the magnetization of the specimen
is due to the domain walls. If the applied field is strong the magnetization of the
specimen is due to rotation of domain.

4.Explain how hysteresis curve is explained on the bais of domain theory?

Hysteresis:

When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of magnetization, the

variation of B with respect to H can be represented by a closed hysteresis loop. i.e., it refers to
lagging of magnetization behind the magnetizing field.

Hysteresis on basis of domains . 8

 When Ferro magnetic material is subjected to magnetic field there is increase in
the value of resultant magnetic moment due to two processes.
I. The movement of domain walls

II. Rotation of domains

When a small external

field is applied, the domains walls are displaced slightly in the easy direction of magnetization.
This gives rise to small magnetization corresponding to initial portion of hysteresis curve (OA)
as in fig.

Now if the field is removed, then the domains returns to its original state, and it
is known as reversible domains.
When the field is increased, large number of domains contributes to the
magnetization and thus the magnetization increases rapidly with H.
Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacem ent of domain wall to
a very large distance. The domain boundaries do not come back to their original position.
This process is indicated as AB and this domain are called irreversible domains.
At point “B’ all the domains have not magnetized along easy direction. Now when
the field is further increased, the domains start rotating along the field direction and
the anisotropic energy is stored in the hard direction, represented as BC in dig.
Thus the specimen is aid to attain the maximum magnetization. At this
position, even after the removal of external field the material posses maximum
magnetization, called residual magnetism (or) retentivity, represented by OD.
Actually after the removal of the external field, the specimen will try to attain the
original configuration by the movement of Bloch wall. But this movement is stopped due to
presence of impurities, lattice imperfections. Therefore to overcome this, a large amount of
reverse magnetic field is applied to specimen. The amount of energy spent to reduce t he
magnetization to zero is called coercivity by OE.

5.Explain antiferro and ferromagnetic materials Antiferromagnetic materials

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 In antiferromagnetic materials the spins are aligned in antiparallel direction due
to unfavorable exchange interaction betw een them.

Examples: Ferrous oxide, Chromium oxide, Magnesium oxide etc

Properties of antiferromagnetic materials

3. Spin alignment is antiparallel
4. Antiferromagnetic susceptibility depends greatly on temperature.
5. Susceptibility is very small and positive.
6. Susceptibility increases slightly with temperature and beyond Neel temperature
the susceptibility decreases with temperature.
Ferrimagnetic materials :
In Ferrimagnetic materials the spins are aligned in anti parallel direction with
different magnitudes. They are composed of different transition metal ions.

Properties of ferrimagnetic materials

1. Spin alignment is antiparallel with different magnitudes

2. They posses net magnetic moment
3. Above curie temperature ferri magnetic materials becomes paramagnetic and below
curie temperature it becomes ferromagnetic material
4. Susceptibility is very large and positive.
5. Beyond Neel temperature Susceptibility decreases.
6. They have hysteresis loop in the form of Square
7. They have low coercivity and low hysteresis loss

6. Give an account of the structure , properties and applications of ferities

Ferrites
Ferrites are magnetic compounds made of two or more metal ions. The general formula
for ferrites is X2 + Fe3+ O4

Examples: Ni 2+ Fe3+ O4 - Nickel ferrite

Zn 2+ Fe3+ O4 – Zinc ferrite

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 Structure:
Ferrites formed usually have face centered cubic structure of oxygen ions closely
packed together with divalent and trivalent metal ions in the interstitial sites. This
structure is called spinal structure. There are two types of ferrite
structures.
(i) Regular spinal (ii) Inverse spinal
Regular spinal: Eg. Mg 2+Fe 3+ O4
In this type each metal atom is surrounded by 4 O2- ions in a tetragonal
fashion. For example if the the metal atom is Mg 2+ then structure is a shown
and itis called ‘A’ site Each Fe3 + is surrounded by six o 2_ ions and forms octahedral

fashion. Totally there will be 16 such octahedral sites in the unit cell. This is indicated
as B site.

Each Fe3 + is surrounded by six o 2_ ions and forms octahedral fashion.Totally there will
be 16 such octahedral sites in the unit cell. This is indicated as B site.
Thus in regular spinal each divalent metal ion exists in a tetrahedral form and trivalent metal
ion in octahedral form. Hence the sites A and B form a regular spinal ferrite structure.

Inverse spinal:

In this, the trivalent occupies all A sites and half B sites. Thus left out B sites
will be occupied by the divalent. It is inverse of regular spinal ferrite structure.
Properties:
1. It has net magnetic moment.
2. Above Curie temperature I become Para magnetic and below Curie temperature it
behaves as ferrimagnetic material.
3. The susceptibility is positive and very large.
4. Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitude.
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 5. Mechanically, it has pure iron character.
6. They have high permeability and high resistivity.
Application:
They are used to produce ultrasonic by magnetostriction method
They are used in audio and video transformers
They are used in radio receiver
They are used in computers and data processing unit
They are used as amplifier

7. Differentiate soft and hard magnetic materials

Soft Magnetic materials Hard Magnetic materials

S.No
The materials which can be The materials which a re difficult
1.
easily magnetized and to magnetized and demagnetized
demagnetized are called soft are called Hard magnetic
magnetic materials. materials.
They have narrow hysteresis They have Broad hysteresis
2.
loop loop
Loop area is less and hence Loop area is large and hence
3.
hysteresis loss is minimum hysteresis loss is maximum
Retentivity and coercivity is Retentivity and coercivity is large
4.
small
Susceptibility and permeability Susceptibility and permeability is low
5.
is high
Movement of domain wall is Movement of domain wall is difficult
6.
easy and hence for a large field is
and hence for a small applied applied for magnetization.
field large magnetiza tion
occurs
Eg: Iron, Silicon Alloys, Eg: Carbon steel, Tungsten steel,
7.
Ferrites etc, chromium steel etc.,

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