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Latest FORM 2 Physics Notes with solved examples

Mathematics for Physics (Kenyatta University)

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232
FORM TWO PHYSICS
HANDBOOK
[With well drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]
(Vision 2030 Edition)

LABO ATOMS

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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page 2

BRIEF PERSONAL PROFILE Page 2

GUIDELINES IN MY LIFE Page 2

Chapter 1 MAGNETISM Page 3

Chapter 2 MEASUREMENT II Page 9

Chapter 3 TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE Page 15

Chapter 4 EQUILIBRIUM AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY Page 18

Chapter 5 SOUND Page 21

Chapter 6 HOOKE’S LAW Page 25

Chapter 7 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT Page 30

Chapter 8 WAVES I Page 36

Chapter 9 FLUID FLOW Page 40

Chapter 10 REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES Page 45

Acknowledgement ymotherJcMkiandmysblgervpciatno.Theywragtsucofenragmt.

First and foremost I thank the Almighty God for the gift of life, energy, knowledge and skills to pursue this work.

Lines that influence activities in my life.

1. God is always there to assist provided you ask for Him.

2. At its best, Physics eliminates complexity by revealing underlying simplicity.

3. There is no method of changing your fate except through hard work.

4. Cohesion with immediate neighbours and determination always betters your immediate environment.

Chapter One MAGNETISM

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Properties of magnets

1. Magnetic poles

 Magnetic poles refer to the ends of a magnet where

the power of attraction or repulsion is greatest.

 The force of attraction of a magnet is greatest at its

poles. The force reduces away from poles. This is why
when a bar magnet is dipped in iron fillings, the fillings
cling mainly around the ends of the magnet.

 Repulsion is the only sure test for polarity of magnet.

2. Directional property of a magnet This is because repulsion can only occur between like
poles of magnets. Attraction is not sure test because
 If a magnet is suspended by a thread and is free to it can occur between unlike poles of magnets or
rotate it rotates and finally rests in the in the North- between a magnet and unmagnified magnetic
south direction. This is called the directional property
material.
of a magnet.
Exercise

1) Describe how you would verify the basic law of

magnetism given two bar magnets and a piece of
thread

Solution

Procedure

Suspend one bar magnet. Bring the north pole of another

magnet towards the north pole of the suspended magnet
and observe what happens.

Bring the same pole towards the south pole of the

3. Magnetic and non- magnetic materials suspended magnet.

 Magnetic materials are those that can be attracted by Observations and conclusion
magnets e.g. Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Iron alloy like steel, A north pole attracts a south pole and repels a north pole
Nickel alloy etc. while a south pole repels a south pole. Hence, like poles
repel while unlike poles attract.
 Non-magnetic materials are those that cannot be
attracted by a magnet e.g. Copper, Brass, Aluminium, Magnetic field patterns
Glass, wood, Graphite
Magnetic field
 Ferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials that
are strongly attracted by magnet e.g. soft iron  The space around a magnet where the magnetic
influence (magnetic force of attraction and repulsion)
is felt
4. The Basic Law of Magnetism  The field is stronger near the poles of the magnet and

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It states that like poles of magnets repel while unlike is weaker farther away from the poles.
poles attract.

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Magnetic field lines  Point x is called neutral point. The resultant magnetic
field at the neutral point is zero.
 These are lines of force which represent a magnetic
field. These lines form a magnetic field patterns.  Magnetic field lines get concentrated along the soft
iron.
Direction of magnetic field

 The direction of magnetic field at a point is the

direction to which a free north pole would move if
placed at that point in the field.

Characteristics/ properties of magnetic field lines

a) Magnetic field lines start from the North Pole and end
at the South Pole.
 The soft iron ring concentrates the magnetic field
lines thus preventing them from pausing through
region P. This is called magnetic shielding and
region P is therefore said to be shielded by the ring
from magnetic fields.

Practical application of magnetic shielding

b) They repel each other sideways and form closed
paths as shown above.  The soft iron rods and rings are used in magnetic
shielding where some electrical measuring
c) They do not intersect each other. instruments and watches are shielded and protected
from stray magnetic fields.

Exercise

1. Describe how you would shield a magnetic

material from a magnetic field. State one
application of magnetic shielding.

d) They are closer together where the field is stronger. 2. Explain the meaning of the following

i. Magnetic field

ii. Magnetic lines of force

3. The diagram below the magnetic field patterns

between two magnets P and Q

 Consider two bar magnets with opposite poles

adjacent.
1. Identify poles A and B

2. State which of the two magnets P and Q is

stranger. Explain.

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4. Sketch the magnetic field patterns for the Magnetization

arrangement below.
 Magnetization is the process of making a magnet
from magnetic material. During this process, dipoles
get aligned. In a partially magnetized material most
but not all domains are aligned in one direction.

 When a material is fully magnetized all the domains

are aligned in one direction. At this state the material
is said to be magnetically saturated.

 There are four common methods of magnetization;

these are:

1. Induction

2. Stroking

3. Hammering in north-south direction

4. Electrical method using direct current.

1. Electrical method

 Direct current is used.

 The magnetic material to be magnetized is placed

inside the solenoid connected in series with the
battery. The switch is closed and current is passed
through the solenoid for some time.

 The polarities of the magnet depend on the direction

The Domain Theory of Magnetism of the electric current.
 Magnets consist of small magnetic groups referred  The poles of the magnet can be identified using the
to as magnetic domains. Domains have a common right hand grip rule for current carrying coil which
magnetic axis. Domains comprise smaller sub – states that: If a coil carrying a current is grasped in
atomic magnets (molecular magnets) called dipoles. the right hand such that the fingers point in the
The dipoles in a particular domain point towards a direction of current in the coil, then the thumb points
common direction. in the direction of North Pole.

Notes:

I. Allowing the current to flow for a long time does not

increase the extent of magnetic saturation. It only

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causes overheating of the solenoid which adversely

affects magnetism.

II. A solenoid is a coil with many turns of insulated

copper wire.

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Exercise

1. In an experiment to magnetized two substance X and

Y using current two curves wave obtained as shown
below.

Explain the difference between X and Y

2. The graph in the figure below show the relationship 5. Stroking method
between the attractive force of an electromagnetic
and the magnetizing current  In this method a magnetic material bar is repeatedly
stroked using one end of a strong magnet. Stroking
aligns domains and therefore the magnetic material
becomes a magnet. There are two types of stoking:

a) Single stroke method

 In this method the magnetic material is stroked with

one pole of the magnet from one end to another,
lifting it away as shown. The stroking is repeated
Explain the shape of the curve at point AB using the several times while keeping the inclination of the
domain theory. magnet the same.

3. Hammering (mechanical method)

 This method makes the use of the earth’s magnetic

field. A steel bar to be magnetized is placed in the
north-south position and the upper end is hammered.
The end pointing northward becomes a north pole and
the one pointing southward the South Pole.

 The end of the magnetic material bar where the

magnet finishes stroking acquires an opposite
polarity to that of the stroking magnet.

Disadvantages of single stroke method

 It produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the

end of the magnetized material than the other.

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 N/B This disadvantage can be avoided by use of

double stroke method.

4. Induction

 In this method, a magnet induces magnetism in a

magnetic material in contact with it. The end of the
material in contact with the magnet attains a polarity
opposite to the pole of the magnet.

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b) Double stroke method Demagnetization can be hastened by any of the following

methods;
 In this method, the magnetic material bar is stroked
from the centre repeatedly in opposite directions,  Heating
using opposite polarities of two bar magnets as
shown in (a) below or like poles as in (b) below.  Hammering in east-west position

 Dropping on a hard surface

 Electrical method using alternating current.

1. Hammering

 Hammering a magnet placed in the east- west

direction or dropping it evidently on the hard surface
floor several times makes it lose most of the
magnetism.

2. Heating

 Heating a magnet until red hot and cooling it suddenly

when resting in the east- west direction makes it lose
its magnetism.

3. Electrical method

 Placing a magnet in a solenoid placed in east west

direction and passing an alternating current
demagnetizes it. This is because alternating current
Exercise reverses many times per second, disorienting the
magnetic dipoles.
With the aid of a diagram explain how you would
magnetized a steel bar so as to obtain a south pole at
marked end of the bar by

a. Using a permanent magnet

b. Using an electric current

Which of the above method produce stranger magnet?

Give a reason. Hard and soft magnetic material

Soft magnetic material

Demagnetization  These are those magnetic materials magnetized
easily but do not retain their magnetism for long.
 This is the process by which a magnet losses
Examples: iron, alloy of iron and nickel.
magnetism. In this process domains reverse their
direction and get misaligned (disoriented) Applications of soft magnetic materials
 A magnet can undergo self-demagnetization if poorly 1. Making electromagnets
stored or the process can be influenced externally by

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giving the dipoles enough energy to overcome the 2. Making transformer cores
forces holding them in a particular direction.
3. Used for magnetic shielding

Hard magnetic materials

 These are magnetic materials that are difficult to

magnetize but once magnetized they retain their
magnetism for a long time. Example – steel.

Application of hard magnetic materials: Used in making

permanent magnets

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Storing magnets 6. State the polarities of ends X and Y.

 Bar magnets are stored in pairs with soft iron keepers 7. With the aid of a diagram explain how bar magnets
placed across their ends to prevent self- are stored so as to minimize self demagnetization
demagnetization. Unlike poles of the magnets are
placed close to each other. 8. Describe a simple experiment to show the existence
of magnetic poles

9. Name two properties of a magnet

10. What are ferromagnetic materials?

11. Using the domain theory of magnetism, explain why

a) The stray of a magnet cannot be measured

beyond a certain point.

 The magnets magnetize soft iron keepers through b) The temperature increase weaker or destroy the
induction. The aligned dipoles form a closed loop or magnetism of a magnet.
chain round the magnets and the keepers, with no free
12. The graphs below are for two magnetic materials.
poles.

Uses of magnets

1. Used in hospitals for removing pieces of iron from the

eyes of patients.

2. Used to industries as stirrers, lifting iron scrap metals.

3. Weather stations for resetting six’s minimum and

maximum thermometer.

4. Navigation for showing direction as in compass

needles
a) Which material is easier to magnetize?
5. Magnetic tapes used in audio and video recorders.
b) Which material forms a stronger magnet?

c) State one application of each.

Revision Questions

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14. Why is soft iron used as magnet keeper? 13. Two similar razor blades are placed one on a wooden
block and the other on a soft iron block as shown
15. Describe how you would shield a magnetic material
from a magnetic field. State one application of
magnetic shielding

16. Use the domain theory to explain a difference

between magnetic and non- magnetic materials.

17. A coil of insulated wire is wound around a u-shaped

below.
soft iron care XY and connected to a battery as shown
in the figure below. It was observed that the razor blade on the wooden
block was attracted to the magnet while the other
on the soft iron was not. Explain.

Chapter Two MEASUREMENT II

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be able to: 1. Measurement of length using vernier calipers and
micrometer screw gauge
a) Measure length using vernier calipers and micrometer
screw gauge 2. Decimal places, significant figures and standard form

b) Express quantities in correct number of decimal 3. Estimation of the diameter of the molecule of oil
places and correct number of significant figures. (relate to the size of the HIV virus, mention effects of
oil spills on health and environment.)
c) Express measurements in standard form
4. Problems in measurements.
d) Estimate the diameter of a molecule of oil

e) Solve numerical problems in measurement.

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Using Vernier Calipers

Vernier Calipers 1. Place the object whose diameter (length) is to

measured between the outside jaws.

2. Close the jaws till they just grip the object.

3. Record the reading of the main scale, opposite and

to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.

4. Read the vernier scale mark that coincides exactly

with a main scale mark and multiply it with the least
count (accuracy) of the Vernier calipers. This is the
Vernier scale reading.

5. The sum of the vernier scale reading and the main

scale reading gives the diameter (length) of the
object.
 The Vernier calipers has two scales. The main scale is
contained on the steel frame and is graduated in Vernier calipers reading = vernier scale reading
centimeters but also has millimeters divisions. The +main scale reading
Vernier scale is contained on the sliding jaw and has
10 equal divisions. Example

 The length of Vernier scale is 0.9cm implying that

each division of the vernier scale is 0.09cm.

 The difference between the main scale division and

the Vernier scale division is called the least count.
This is the accuracy of the Vernier calipers
i.e.(0.9-0.09)cm = 0.01cm

 Vernier calipers has inside jaws used to measure

internal diameters and outside jaws used to measure
external diameters.

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Exercise (ii) Negative Error

1. Describe how you would measure the internal  Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale is to the
diameter of 100cm3 beaker using vernier calipers. right of the zero mark of the vernier scale

2. Write down the vernier calipers reading in Example

diagram (a) (b) and (c) showed below.

Correction of the Negative Error

 The negative error is corrected by adding zero error to

the reading obtained.

Exercise

The figure below shows a vernier calipers

Zero Error of the Vernier Calipers

State the correct reading of scale if the instrument has a
 Vernier calipers is said to have a zero error if the zero zero error of – 0.02cm.
marks of the main scale and vernier scale do not
coincide when the jaws of the calipers are closed
without an object.
Micrometer Screw Gauge
 There are two types of errors:
 It is used to measure very small lengths such as the
diameter of a thin wire.

(i) Positive Error

 Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale is to the

left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.

Example

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Correction of the Positive Error

 The positive error is corrected by subtracting the zero

error from the reading obtained.

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 The micrometer screw gauge consist of a thimble

which carries a circular rotating scale known as
thimble scale and a spindle which moves forward and
backwards when the thimble is rotated.

 The sleeve has a linear scale in millimeters and half

millimeter called sleeve scale and the thimble has a
circular scale of 50 or 100 equal divisions.

 The ratchet at the end of the thimble prevents the

user from exerting more pressure on an object when
the micrometer screw gauge is in use.

 The distance moved by the spindle in one complete

rotation of the thimble is called the pitch of the
micrometer. A spindle moves forward or backwards
by 0.5mm per a complete rotation of the thimble with
50 divisions.

 Therefore each division of thimble scale represents a

spindle travel of The zero error of the micrometer screw gauge

0.5mm  It occurs if the zero mark of the thimble scale does

= 0.01mm not coincide with the horizontal (centre) line of the
50
sleeve scale when the micrometer is closed without
 This means that if the thimble rotates through one an object.
division, the spindle moves forward or forward by
0.01mm. This is the least count (accuracy) of the Positive error of micrometer screw gauge
micrometer screw gauge.
 Occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is
 Least count of the screw gauge is defined as the below the horizontal line.
distance moved by the spindle when the thimble
Example
rotates through one division.

Using a micrometer screw gauge

1. Place the object whose diameter/length is to be

measured between the anvil and the spindle.

2. Close the micrometer using ratchet until the object is

held gently between the anvil and the spindle. Note  The positive error is corrected by subtraction of the
that the ratchet should slip only once when the grip is error from the reading given by the micrometer screw
firm enough to give accurate reading. gauge.

3. Read the sleeve scale and record it as: Negative error

Sleeve scale reading = --------------mm  It occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is
above the horizontal line of the sleeve scale.
E.g. consider the screw gauge below:
Example
4. Read the thimble scale and multiply it by the least
count of the screw gauge (0.01mm) and record it as:

Thimble scale reading= ……x 0.01=………….mm

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5. Micrometer reading = sleeve scale reading + thimble

scale reading

Examples

 The negative error is corrected by adding the error to

the reading obtained by the screw gauge

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Significant Figures Exercise

 Significant figures refer to the number of digits used Express the following in cm giving the answers in
to specify the accuracy of a value. standard form

Note: a) 0.1mm

1. The digits 1-9 are all significant when they appear in a b) 125 mm
number.
c) 3.8m
2. The first digit from the left of a number is the first
significant figures d) 0.015m

3. The number of significant figures is determined by e) 7.8 km

counting the number of digits from the first significant
figure on the left. Decimal places

4. Zero may be significant or not depending on the  Refer to number of digits to the right of the decimal
position of the digit point and this determines the accuracy of the number
e.g. 6.0345 (4d.p)
5. If zero occurs between non- zero digits it is significant
e.g. 1004(4sf), 15607(5sf), 180.45(5sf) Exercise

6. When zero occurs at the left end of a number it is not Find the volume of a cube whose side is 2.22 cm. Express
significant e.g. 0.00546(3sf), 0.0002(1sf) your answer correct to 3 d.p

7. If the zero occurs at the right hand end of an integer it Standard Prefixes Used With SI Units
may or may not be significant. E.g. 60000.It can be
 The table below shows multiples and sub- multiples
correct to 1 significant figure therefore the zeros are
used with SI units, their prefixes and symbol for the
not significant. If all the zeros are counted (ended)
prefixes.
then it will be correct to 6 significant figures.
Sub- prefix Symbol for
8. If the zero occurs at the right hand end after the
multiple/ prefix
decimal point, it is always significant e.g. 2.000(4sf),
multiple
3.0(2sf)
10-1 deci d
Exercise 10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
Write down the number of significant figures in each of 10-6 micro µ
the following 10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
a) 40000 10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
b) 609
101 deca da
c) 0.000675 102 hecto h
103 kilo k
d) 5237.8 106 mega M
109 giga G
e) 0.0000600 1012 tera T
1015 peta P
f) 0.002304
1018 exa E
Standard Form

 This is a way of writing a number especially a very

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large or very small number in which only one integer

appears before the decimal point.

 A positive number is said to be in standard form when

written as AX10n, where A is such that 1≤A <10 and
the index n is an integer e.g.3567= 3.567x 103

 If the number lies between zero and 1 then the index n

becomes a negative e.g.0.0003567=3.567x10-4

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The Oil Drop Experiment Possible Sources of Error in the Experiment

 This is an experiment used in the estimation of a) Error in measuring the diameter ( or volume) of oil
diameter/ size /thickness of a molecule. drop

 In this experiment, a tray is filled with water to the b) Error in measuring diameter of oil patch
brim, and lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on
the water surface. Exercise

 An oil drop is carefully placed at the centre of the tray 1. In an experiment to estimate the size of an oil
and allowed to spread on the surface of water until it molecule, the diameter of the patch was measured
is one molecule thick. This forms a patch whose to be 200mm for an oil drop of radius 0.25mm.
diameter is measured Determine the diameter of the molecule of the oil

2. In an experiment to estimate the diameter of oil

molecule 100 drops of oil are released from burette
and level of oil in burette changes from 0.5cm3 to
20.5 cm3. One of the drops is placed on water and
spreads over a circular patch of diameter 20 cm.

a. Determine:

I. The volume of the oil drop

II. The area of the patch covered by the oil

III. The diameter of the oil molecule

b. State:

i.Assumptions made in this experiment

 Thickness of oil molecule is estimated as d ii.Two possible sources of errors in this
experiment
volume of oil drop = volume of oil patch

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4 3 d Revision Questions
πr = π( )2×thickness, t, of oil patch (or molecule)
3 2
1. What are the zero errors of the micrometer screw
Functions of lycopodium powder gauges shown in the figures below?(the
micrometers are closed).if the micrometers were
1. It breaks surface tension
used to measure the diameter of a wire whose
2. it clearly shows the extent of spread of the oil drop diameter is 1.00 mm, what would be the reading
on each?
Function of beams:

 Used to estimate diameter of the spread oil patch

Assumptions made in oil drop experiment

a) The oil drop is perfectly spherical

b) The oil patch is perfectly cylindrical

c) The oil patch is one molecule thick.

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2. Compare and contrast the scales of two

micrometer screw gauges with a pitch of 0.5mm
and 1.0mm.

3. What are the two limitations of the micrometer

screw gauge?

4. List down the advantages and disadvantages of

the micrometer screw gauge over the vernier
calipers

5. Sketch a micrometer screw gauge scale reading:

a) O.23 mm

b) 5.05 mm

6. (a)What are the zero errors of the vernier calipers

in figures (a) and (b) below?

(b) If the correct diameter of an object is 4.01 cm, what

would be the readings of both calipers for this diameter?

( c) The calipers in figure (a) was used to measure the

diameter of a cylindrical object and recorded 4.55 cm
while the one in figure (b) was used to measure the
diameter of a sphere and recorded 5.05cm. Calculate
correct volumes of these objects in m3. (Take π = 3.142)

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Chapter Three TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE

Moment of a Force Moment of a force = force ×perpendicular distance

 Basically, moment of a force refers to the turning ∴ moment of force about pivot = 20N×0.4 m
effect of the force.
= 8 Nm
 It is defined as the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance between the point of support
(pivot or fulcrum) and the line of action of the force.
The Principle of Moments (the Law of the Lever)

 Consider a meter rule balanced (at equilibrium) on a

pivot at its centre by weights W1, W2, W3 and W4 as
shown below.

Moment of a force = force×perpendicular distance

 SI unit of moment of a force is the newton meter (Nm)

Factors Affecting Moment of a Force

1. Amount of force – moment of force is directly

proportional to the amount of force applied.  The forces W1 and W2tend to make the rule turn in the
anticlockwise direction about the pivot. Therefore, the
2. Perpendicular distance between line of action of force
moments due to these weights are referred to as an
and point of support – moment is directly proportional
anticlockwise moments.
the distance 900.
 Similarly, the forces W3 and W4 tend to make the rule
Examples of Activities in Which Force Produces a Turning
turn in a clockwise direction and therefore, their
Effect
moments about the pivot are clockwise moments.
1. Opening and closing a door
Sum of clockwise moment =W3d3 + W4d4
2. Closing a lid of a container e.g.( geometrical
Sum of anticlockwise moment =W1d1 + W2d2
instrument box)
At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment =
3. A pair of scissors or garden shears in use
Sum of anticlockwise moment
4. Children playing on “ see saw”
W3d3 + W4d4 = W1d1 + W2d2
5. A wheelbarrow being used to lift heavy loads
 This can be summarized by the principle of moments
6. A screwdriver being used to tighten or loosen a screw. which states “for a system in equilibrium the sum of
clockwise moments about a point must be equal to
7. Beam balance in use. the sum of anti clockwise moments about the same
point”.
Examples
N/B: A body is said to be at equilibrium when it is
Find the moment of the force about the pivot in the balanced under the action of a number of forces.
figures below

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Examples Exercise

1. State the law of the lever ( as above) A half meter rule is suspended vertically from a pivot at
the 0 cm mark. It is maintained in the vertical position
2. A uniform meter rule pivoted at its centre is balanced by four horizontal forces acting in the directions shown
by a force of 4.8N at 20cm mark and some other two in the figure below
forces, F and 2.0N on the 66cm and 90cm marks
respectively. Calculate the force F.

The 10.0 N force acts through the 15 cm mark, 4.0 N

force through the 20 cm mark and 5.0 N force through
the 40 cm mark. Calculate F which acts through the 30
cm mark.
At equilibrium (balance),
Parallel forces
Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise
moment  Consider a uniform rod below balanced by the forces
F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R which is the normal reaction on
F ×0.16 + 2.0×0.40 = 4.8×0.30 pivot.
0.16F + 0.80 = 1.44

0.16F = 0.64

0.64
F=
0.16

F = 4.0 N

3. A boy of mass 40kg sits at a point 2.0m from the

pivot of a seen saw. Find the weight of a girl who  The forces F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R are parallel.
can balance the see-saw by sitting at a distance of
3.2m from the pivot. (Take g =10nkg)  For parallel forces:

solution a) The sum of forces acting on one side of the

system is equal to the sum of forces acting on
opposite direction i.e. the algebraic sum of
parallel forces is zero.

b) The sum of clockwise moments is equal to the

sum of anticlockwise moments i.e. the algebraic
sum of the moments of parallel forces is zero.

Exercise

At equilibrium (balance), A uniform metal rod of length 80cm and mass 3.2kg is
supported horizontally by two vertical spring’s balances C

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Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise and D balance C is also from one end while balance D is
moment 30cm from the other end. Find the reading on each
balance.
(
Wg×3.2m = 40kg×10
N
kg)×2.0m

3.2Wg = 800

800
Wg =
3.2

wg = 250 N

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Anti – parallel forces (Couples) III. Forces applied on the steering wheel of a car when
going round a bend
 Anti – parallel forces or a couple refers to equal,
parallel but opposite forces. IV. Forces applied on bicycle handle

 The total moment of anti-parallel forces is the product

of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between the forces.

Revision Exercise
Example
1. Explain why the handle of a door is placed as far as
Two vertical equal and opposite forces act on a meter possible from the hinges.
rule at 20 cm and 90 cm marks respectively. If each of
the forces has a magnitude of 4.0 N, calculate their 2. Explain why it is easier to loosen a tight nut using a
moment on the meter rule about the 40 cm mark. spanner with a long handle than the one with a short
handle.
solution
3. The figure below shows a uniform bar in equilibrium
Total moment under the influence of two forces
= one of the force, F X perpendicular distance between the
forces, d

= 4.0N×(0.9-0.2)m

= 4.0 N ×0.7

= 2.8 Nm

Examples of couples

I. Forces applied on a wheel spanner when tightening

or loosening a nut

II. Forces applied when opening a water tap

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Chapter Four EQUILIBRIUM AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Centre of Gravity 3. For circular plate construct diameters. The point of
intersection, which is the centre of the circle, is the
 Centre of gravity (COG) of a body is the point of centre of gravity.
application of the resultant force due to earth’s
attraction. It is the point where the whole weight of
the body appears to act from. The resultant force is
the weight (W = mg) of the body.

Centre of Gravity of Regular Shapes

 The centre of gravity of a uniform body (body with

weight evenly distributed) lies at the body’s
geometrical centre. For example, a uniform meter rule
Examples
balances at the 50 cm mark when suspended.
1. A uniform meter rule is balanced at 20cm mark
when a load of 1.2N is hung at the zero mark.

a) Draw a diagram of meter rule showing all the

forces acting on it.

 The centre of gravity of regular shapes can also be

determined by construction e.g.

1. For square and rectangular plates, diagonals are b) Calculate the weight and mass of the meter rule
constructed. The point of intersection is the centre of
gravity.
solution

At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment

= Sum of anticlockwise moment

W×0.3 m = 1.2 N×0.2 m

0.3 W = 0.24
2. For triangular plate, perpendicular bisectors of the
sides are constructed. The point of intersection is the 0.24
∴W= = 0.8 N
centre of gravity. 0.3

c) Determine the reaction on the pivot.

solution

total up ward forces = total downwaed forces

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R = 1.2 + W

R = 1.2 + 0.8

R = 2.0 N

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2. The diagram below shows a metal plate 3m long, 1m 4. The figure below shows a diagram, of mass 150kg
wide and negligible thickness. A horizontal force of and radius 0.5m being pulled by horizontal force F
100N applied at point D just makes the plate tilt. against a step 0.1 m high. What initial force, F, is just
Calculate the weight of the plate. sufficient to turn the drawn so that it rises over the
step. If the diagram below shows spherical balls
placed at different positions on a surface.

Solution
Equilibrium States
At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment
= Sum of anticlockwise moment  State of equilibrium refers to state of balance of a
body. There are three states of equilibrium:
100 N×3 m = W×0.5 m

300 = 0.5 W
1. Stable equilibrium
300
∴W= = 600 N
0.5  A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if it returns
to the original position after being displaced slightly.
Exercise The funnel does not topple over since the line of
action of weight still falls inside the base of the
1. A uniform half- meter rule is pivoted at the 10cm funnel.
mark. Find the position of a 2.0 N weight that will
balance the rule horizontally if the weight of the
rule is 0.4 N.

2. The figure below shows a uniform plank of length

6.0m acted upon by the forces shown. If the plank 2. Unstable equilibrium.
has a weight of 300 N, draw the diagram showing
all the forces acting on the plank. Calculate the  A body is in unstable equilibrium if on being displaced
tension T in the string and the reaction at the pivot. slightly, it does not return to its original positions but
occupies a new position. The funnel below topples
over because the line of action of weight falls outside
the base of the funnel.

3. Neutral equilibrium

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 A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if on being

displaced it occupies a new position which is similar
to the original position.

3. Define the centre of gravity of a body

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Conditions for Equilibrium Exercise

1. The sum of forces on the body in one direction is 1. State the conditions of equilibrium for a body
equal to the sum of forces acting on the body in the acted upon by a number of parallel forces.
opposite direction
2. Explain why:
2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any point is
equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about a) It is not safe for a double Decker bus to carry
the same point. standing passengers on the upper deck.

Factors Affecting the Stability of a Body b) Bus body- builders build luggage
compartments under the seats rather than on
1. The position of COG of the body - the lower the roof racks.
position of the centre of gravity the more stable a
body is. c) Laboratory stands are made with a wide heavy
base.
2. Base area of the body- a body is more stable when the
base is wide. A narrow base makes the body to be 3. When is an object said to be in equilibrium?
less stable.
4. What type of equilibrium has:

I. A marble at the bottom of a watch

Examples of Application of Stability glass?

1. Containers for holding liquids such as conical flask in II. A tight rope walker?
the laboratory have broad base to improve their
stability. III. A cylinder sitting on its base?

2. Racing cars (e.g. formula one car) have wider wheels IV. A sphere on a level table top?
and lower positions of center of gravity than ordinary
V. A bird perched on a thin horizontal
cars.
branch of a tree?
3. Most buses carry their cargo in space below the
5. State:
passenger level instead of the roof rack in order to
keep the centre of gravity positions low. I. Two ways in which the stability of a body can be
increased.
4. A hydrometer is able to stay upright in a liquid
because it is weighted at its base and therefore its II. Two practical application of stability.
centre of gravity is at the base.
6. Explain how a cyclist maintains the stability of a
5. A Bunsen burner has a wide heavy base to increase moving bicycle.
stability
7. Describe the state of equilibrium of the ball in
6. A person carrying a bucket of water in one hand has each position
to lean his body to the other side to adjust the position
his centre of gravity.

7. Chairs, stools, tripod 73 stands, tables etc are

provided with three or more legs. The legs are often
made slightly inclined outwards to improve stability.

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Chapter Five SOUND

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Sound: nature and sources (experimental treatment
required)
a) Perform and describe simple experiments to show
that sound is produced by vibrating bodies 2. Propagation of a sound

b) Perform and describe an experiment to show that 3. Compressions and rarefaction

sound requires a material medium for a propagation.
4. Speed of a sound by echo sound
c) Explain the nature of sound waves.
5. Factors affecting the speed of a sound
d) Determine the speed of sound in air by the echo
method. 6. Problems on velocity of a sound

e) State the factors affecting the speed of sound.

f) Solve numerical problems involving velocity of sound.

Definition of Sound

 Sound is a form of energy that originates from

vibrating objects. It is a longitudinal mechanical wave.

Some Sources of Sound

1. Vibrating wooden strip

2. Vibrating wire e.g. guitar wire being pluck.

3. Vibrating drum

4. Tuning fork- the prongs of tuning fork are made to Exercise

vibrate by striking them against a hard surface.
1. The figure below shows a vibrating fork. The time
5. Vibrating air columns e.g. blowing air a cross the interval for the prong to go from A to B is 0.005 s.
mouth of a test- tube. Find:

6. Air siren- it is a form of disk with a ring of equally a) The frequency of the fork
spaced holes which are equidistant from the centre. It
is rotated at a constant rate as air is blown through b) The wavelength of the vibrations, if the velocity
the holes. of sound in air is 340 m/s.

7. Cog-wheel and card

8. Voice box (larynx)

Propagation of Sound Energy

 Sound wave is propagated in form of compressions

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(areas of high pressure) and rarefactions (areas of

low pressure) through propagating medium. Sound
requires a material medium for propagation.

2. The diagram below shows sound waves passing 2. Close the switch and observe what happens.
through air. Study it and answer the questions that
follow. Observation: It is observed that the bell begins to ring and
the sound is heard outside.

3. Gradually pump out some air and note the effect this
has on sound reaching you.

Observation: The intensity of sound decreases gradually.

4. Pump as much air out of the jar as possible and listen

a. Label the following: to the sound produced.

i. Compression Observation: Sound is found to have almost disappeared

though the hammer can be seen vibrating
ii. Rarefaction
Conclusion
iii. wavelength
The above observations show that the sound cannot
b. If the wave front takes 0.1 s to travel from A to B, travel through a vacuum. It needs a material medium for
find: propagation.

i. The frequency Factors Affecting Velocity of Sound In Air

ii. The wavelength, if velocity of sound in air a) Temperature of the air - sound travels faster in
is 330 m/s. hot air than in cold air.

Experiment b) Humidity of the air - the velocity of sound on air

increases with humidity
Aim:

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To show that sound requires a material medium to travel. c) Direction of wind -wind blowing in the same
(I.e. sound does not travel in vacuum) direction as sound increases the velocity of the
latter.
Apparatus
Sound Transmission in Solids, Liquids and Gases
Electric bell
 Sound travels fastest in solids, followed by liquids and
Switch then gases.

Bell glass- jar  Speed of sound in materials varies from solid to solid,
liquid to liquid and gas to gas depending on the
Vacuum pump density of the material. Denser material transmits
sound faster.
Wires
Reflection Property of Sound Waves
Cells
 Reflected sound is called echo. Sound is reflected
Glass plate
when it falls on hard surfaces.
Procedure
 Reflections of sound waves also obey the laws of
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below. reflection:

i. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of

reflection at point of incidence

ii. The incident sound, the reflected sound and the

normal lie on the same plane.

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Reverberation m
∴ 2x = 330 ×0.7s
s
 Reverberation refers to the effect in which original
sound seems prolonged due to overlap with the echo 330×0.7
x= = 115.5 m
sound. It occurs in some halls, sound waves are 2
reflected from walls, floor and ceiling and since the
echo time is short; the echo overlaps with the original m
Also, 2(d - x) = 330 ×(0.7+0.2)s
sound. s

 To reduce reverberation in places like broadcasting 297

d= +x
studios and concert halls, walls are made using 2
absorbent materials like cotton wool and foam rubber.
d = 148.5 + 115.5 = 264 m (this is the width of the cliff)
Applications of Reflection of Sound
2. A time keeper in 100m race stands at the finishing
a) Determination of Speed of Sound point. He starts his watch the moment he hears the
sound of a gun. What error does he make in the
 In this case, sound is produced in front of an obstacle timing of the race? (Speed of sound in air is 330ms-1)
whose distance away is known. The time for the
sound to reach the obstacle and back to the source Solution
(i.e. time for echo to be heard) is measured using a
The error is equal to the time taken for the sound from the
stop watch.
gun to reach the time keeper, i.e. time taken for sound to
travel 100m at the speed of 330ms-1 the sound takes:

100m
T= = 0.303 seconds
330ms-1

=============================================

b) Determination of Distances by Producing Sound of a

Known Speed (pulse-echo technique)
distancetravelled, 2d 2d  Pulse-echo technique involves measuring distances
Speedofsound = =
timetaken , t t by producing sound of known speed and measuring
time taken to receive an echo.
Example
 Ultrasound (sound of frequency of over 20 KHz) is
1. A man standing in a valley between two cliffs strikes a used in pulse-echo technique because it penetrates
gong. He hears an echo from one cliff 0.7s later and deepest and can be reflected easily by tiny grains.
from the other 0.2 s after the first. Determine the
width of the valley. (Speed of sound in air, v=330ms-1) Exercise
Solution A fishing boat uses ultra- sound of frequency 6.0x104 Hz
to detect fish directly below. Two echoes of the
ultrasound are received, one after 0.09s coming from the
shoal of fish and other after 0.12s coming from the sea
bed. If the sea bed is 84m below the ultrasound
transceiver, calculate:

i. The speed of ultrasound waves in water

ii. The wavelength of the ultrasound waves in water

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letditancefromnearestcliffbexand iii. The depth of the shoal of fish below the boat

thatbetweenthetwocliffsd

distance = speedofsound ×time

Applications of Pulse- Echo Technique 5. In an experiment to determine speed of sound in air, a

drum at a point 150m from a vertical wall was struck
Used: at varying frequency while listening to the echo. The
echo coincides with the sound from the drum at a
a) In the ship to determine the depth of the sea. time when to successive strikes were made within a
time of 18.5s.
b) In under water exploration of gas and oil.
i. Determine the time taken for an echo to be
c) In fishing boats with pulse echo equipment to locate
heard
shoals of fish.
ii. Determine the speed of sound in air at the
d) In special types of spectacles used by the blind
place
people to tell how far objects are ahead of them.
iii. What difference would you expect if the
e) By bats to detect the presence of obstacles in their
experiment was repeated on a colder day?
flight path.
6. A boy strikes a railway line with a hammer. A railway
Revision Exercise
walker 600m a way hears two sounds, one from the
1. State how the pitch of sound wave is affected by railway line and the other from air. If the time interval
frequency between the two sounds is 1.65 s and the speed of
sound in air is 340ms-1, determine the speed of sound
2. The following diagram shows a set up that was used in the railway line.
to demonstrate that sound requires a material
medium for transmission.

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i. State what happens to the sound from the

bell as air continues to be drawn from the jar

ii. What happens to the sound if some air is

allowed back into the jar

iii. Give possible reasons why it is not possible to

reduce sound completely in this experiment

3. A girl standing some distance away from the cliff

blows a whistle and hears an echo 1.10s later. If the
speed of a sound in air is 350ms-1, determine how for
the girl is from the foot of the cliff.

4. A loudspeaker placed between two walls but nearer to

wall A than wall B is sending out constant sound
waves. Determine how far the loudspeaker is from
wall B if it is 100m from wall A and the time between
the two echoes received is 0.2 seconds. (Speed of
sound in air= 340ms-1)

Chapter Six HOOKE’S LAW

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: 1. Hooke’s law

a) State and verify experimentally Hooke’s law 2. Spring constant

b) Determine the spring constant 3. Spring balance

c) Construct and calibrate a spring balance 4. Problems on Hooke’s law

d) Solve numerical problems involving Hooke’s law

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Introduction 5. Elasticity

 The knowledge of stretching materials when forces  This is the ability of a material to recover its original
are applied is important particularly in the shape and size after the force causing deformation is
construction industry. It helps engineers to determine removed. The materials with this ability are called
the strength of the materials to be used for specific elastic e.g. rubber bands, spring, and some wires.
work. This topic deals with study of how materials
behave when stretched and the relationship between  A material which does not recover its shape but is
the extent of stretching and stretching force. The deformed permanently is called plastic e.g. plasticine.
pioneer of the topic is the physicist Robert Hooke.

Characteristics of Materials
Hooke’s Law
1. Strength
 Hooke’s law relates the stretching force and
 It is the ability of a material to resist breakage when extension produced.
under stretching, compressing or shearing force. A
strong material is one which can withstand a large It states that “for a helical spring or any other elastic
force without breaking. material, extension is directly proportional to the
stretching force, provided elastic limit is not exceeded”
2. Stiffness
i.e.F ∝ e; F = ke,
 Refers to the resistance a material offers to forces
which tend to change its shape or size or both. Stiff Where k is the constant of
materials are not flexible and resist bending.
proportionalitycalledspringconstant.
3. Ductility
 Sl unit of spring constant is the newton per meter
 This is the quality of a material which leads to (N/m).
permanent change of shape and size. Ductile
 Spring constant is defined as the measure of
materials elongate considerably when under
stiffness of a spring.
stretching forces and undergo plastic determination
until they break e.g. lead, copper, plasticine.

4. Brittleness  Graphically, Hooke’s law can be expressed as below.

 This is the quality of a material which leads to
breakage just after elastic limit is exceeded. Brittle
materials do not undergo extension and break without
warning on stretching. E.g. blackboard chalk, bricks,
cast iron, glass, and dry biscuits.

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Solution

F mg
k= =
e e

(600×10-3×10)N
k= = 500Nm-1
1.2×10-2m

2. The figure below shows a spring when unloaded,

when supporting a mass of 80g and when supporting
a stone. Study the diagrams and use them to
determine the mass of the stone.

 The graph of stretching force against extension, for

material that obeys Hooke’s law, is a straight line
through the origin. The gradient (slope) of such a
graph gives the spring constant of the spring used.

changeinF
Gradient(slope) = = springconstant
changeine
Solution
ΔF
S= =k
Δe F mg
k= =
e e
 If the stretching force exceeds a certain value,
permanent stretching occurs. (80×10-3×10)N
k= = 16Nm-1
(10-5)×10-2m
 The point beyond which the elastic material does not
obey Hooke’s law is called elastic limit. F = Wstone = ke
 A point beyond which a material loses its elasticity is N
called yield point. Wstone = 16 ×3×10-2 = 0.48N
m
 Along OE the spring (or elastic material) is said do W 0.48N
undergo elastic deformation. m= =
g 10Nkg-1
 Along EA the spring is said to undergo plastic
= 0.048kg (thisisthemassofthestone)
deformation
3. A spiral spring produces an extension of 6mm when a
Factors Affecting Spring Constant force of 0.3N is applied to it. Calculate the spring
a) Type of material making the wire
constant for a system when two such springs are
arranged in:
b) Length of the spring
a) Series
c) The number of terms per unit length of the spring

d) The diameter (thickness) of the spring

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e) The thickness of the wire

Examples

1. A spring stretches by 1.2 cm when a 600g mass is

suspended on it. What is its spring constant?

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a. Plot a graph of total length (y-axis) against

weight

Totalextension = 2x6x10-3m = 1.2x10-2m

Totalforce = 0.3N

F = ke (fromHooke’slaw)

F 0.3
Ks = = = 25Nm-1
e 1.2x10-2

b) Parallel

b. Use the graph to determine

i. The length of the spring

The length of the spring is that when force acting

on it is zero. From the graph it is 7.1x10-2 m
Since the two springs will share the weight, extension of
1 ii. The spring constant, k.
the system is x6mm = 3mm
2
1
Spring constant of the system, kP is spring constant, k =
slope,S
F 0.3N (8.8-7.8)×10-2m
k p= = = 100Nm-1 S= = 0.009091mN-1
e 0.003m (1.56-0.55)N
4. The data below represents the total length of a spring 1
as the load suspended on it is increased spring constant, k = = 110.0 Nm-1
0.009091mN-1
Weight, 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Compressing a spring
W (N)  Compression refers to change in length that occurs
when a spring is squeezed from its two ends. A
Total 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
sketch of length against compression for a spring
length, L
which obeys Hooke’s law is as below.
(x10-2m)
 Beyond the point E, the turns of the spring are virtually
pressing onto one another and further increase in
force achieves no noticeable decrease in length.

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Work Done in Stretching or Compressing a Spring

 The area under force versus extension graph is

represents to work done in stretching the spring.

Exercise

a. The figure below shows a simple apparatus for

studying the behavior of a spring when subjected to
forces of compression.

1
Area under the graph = Fe,
2

where F is the force applied and e the extension

attained.

From Hooke's law, F = ke

1 1
Describe how the apparatus may be used to obtain Workdone = (ke)e = ke2
2 2
readings of compression force and corresponding length
of spring. Exercise
b. In a similar experiment the following readings were Two springs of negligible weights and of constants k1 =
obtained 50Nm-1 and k2 = 100Nm-1 respectively are connected end
to end and suspended from a fixed point. Determine

i. The total extension when a mass of 2.0kg is hung

from the one end

ii. The constant of the combination.

iii. Work done in stretching each spring (elastic

potential energy of each)

Plot a graph of:

i. Compression forces versus length of the spring

and from the graph determine the minimum force
that will make the spring coils to just come into
contact.

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ii. Compression forces versus compression of

spring and from the graph determine the spring
constant.

Revision Exercise

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1. State Hooke’s law

2. Define the following terms

a) Elasticity

b) Elastic material

c) Plastic deformation

d) Spring constant

e) Stiffness

f) A stiff material

g) Elastic material

Yield point

3. A 60g mass is suspended from a spring. When 1.5g

wire is added, the spring stretches by 1.2cm.Given
that the spring obeys Hooke’s law, find:

a) The spring constant

b) The total extension of the spring

4. A piece of wire of length 12m is stretched through

2.5cm by a mass of 5kg. Assuming that the wire
obeys Hooke’s law

a) Through what length will a mass of 12.5kg

stretch it?

b) What force will stretch it through 4.0cm?

5. The following readings where obtained in an

experiment to verify Hooke’s law using a spring

a. For each reading calculate:

i. The value of the force applied

ii. The extension in mm

b. Plot a graph of extension against force. Does the

spring obey Hooke’s law?

c. From the graph determine:

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i. The elastic limit ( mark on graph)

ii. The spring constant

iii. The weight of a bottle of ink hung from the

spring if the reading obtained is 12cm

iv. The extension in mm when a force of 0.3N is

applied

v. The scale reading in cm for a mass of 0.02kg

Chapter Seven MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to: 1. Magnetic field due to a current

a) Perform and describe experiments to determine the 2. Oersted’s experiment

direction of magnetic field round a current carrying
conductor 3. Magnetic field patterns on straight conductors and
solenoids (right hand grip rule)
b) Construct simple electromagnet
4. Simple electromagnets
c) State the factors affecting the strength of an
electromagnet 5. Factors affecting strength of an electromagnet

d) Determine experimentally the direction of force on a 6. Motor effect (Fleming’s right hand rule)
conductor carrying current in a magnetic field
7. Factors affecting force on a current carrying
e) Explain the working of a simple electric motor and conductor in a magnetic field (qualitative treatment
electric bell only)

8. Applications:

 Electric bell

 Simple electric motor

Introduction

 This topic involves the study of magnetic field due to

the flow of electric current in a conductor and the
applications of this effect. The pioneer of this physics
topic is Hans Oersted, a professor of physics.

Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current Flowing Through a

Conductor
 The direction of deflection of the compass needles
 Consider the diagram below of a set up that that can can be predicted by Ampere’s swimming rule which
be used to investigate the magnetic effect of an states that “if one imagines swimming along a
electric current flowing through a conductor. This is conductor in the direction of electric current and
commonly called Oersted’s experiment. A and B are facing the compass needle, then the north pole of the
magnetic compass needles needle will be deflected towards the swimmer’s left
hand”

Notes:

1. The deflection of the compass needles is due to the

interaction between the magnetic field due to the
electric current in the conductor and the magnetic
field of the compass needle.

2. When the terminals of the battery are interchanged,

the compass needles deflect in the opposite direction
because the direction of current reverses.

3. The extent of deflection of the compass needles

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 When the switch is closed, it is observed that the increases when the amount of electric current flowing
compass needles deflect towards the directions through the conductor increases.
shown in the diagram below.

Exercise
 Note: The symbol represents current into the
The figure below shows a compass placed under a
surface and current out of the surface.
vertical wire XY

A large current is passed from X to Y. Draw the position

of the magnetic compass needle. Magnetic Field on a Current Carrying Solenoid

 A solenoid refers to a wire wound into a long

cylindrical coil with many connected loops.
Magnetic Field Patterns on a Straight Current Carrying
Conductor

 When a large electric current flows through a wire

passing through a card board on which iron filings is
sprinkled, the filings form a pattern of concentric
circles around the wire as shown below.  Fleming’s right hand grip rule for a current carrying
solenoid is used to predict the direction of magnetic
field pattern inside the solenoid due to the current. It
states that “If a coil carrying electric current is held in
the right hand such that the fingers encircle the loops
while pointing in the direction of current flow, the
thumb points in the direction of the North Pole”

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 This behavior of iron filings show that the magnetic

field around a straight current carrying conductor  Note that a solenoid carrying electric current
forms a pattern of concentric circles and is produces a magnet field pattern like that of a bar
perpendicular to the conductor. magnet; one end behaves North Pole and the other
end South Pole.
 The direction of this magnetic field pattern can be
predicted by Fleming’s right hand grip rule for a Exercise
current carrying straight conductor which states that
“if a current carrying conductor is gripped in the right Show the magnetic field pattern inside loop below
hand with the thumb pointing along the wire in the
direction of current, the other fingers will point in the
direction of the magnetic field”.

Simple Electromagnet End B was brought near the iron filings and many of them
were attracted when the switch was closed.
 An electromagnet is made by placing a soft iron core
inside a solenoid carrying an electric current. This is I. Explain why the iron filings got attracted at end of
shown below. the core.

II. Explain what is observed when the switch is opened.

III. If soft iron was replaced with steel and switch

closed: State what is observed when steel is brought
near iron filings

IV. Mention three differences between soft iron and

steel as illustrated in the above experiment.

V. Explain what happens if steel is replaced with

 The right hand grip rule for a current carrying solenoid
copper and dipped in the iron filings.
can as well be used to predict the polarities of the
electromagnet. 2. The diagram below shows a wire wound on an open
pipe at both ends. The wire is then connected to ad.c
Factors Affecting the Strength of an Electromagnet
supply. A north pole of the magnet is near the end of
I. The amount (size) of current in the solenoid – the the core B.
strength of an electromagnet is directly proportional

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to the amount of electric current in the solenoid.

Therefore, the large the current the strong the
electromagnet.

II. The number of turns in the solenoid – the strength

of the electromagnet is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the solenoid. Therefore, the more
the number of turns the strong the electromagnet.

III. The length of the solenoid – the strength of the

electromagnet is directly proportional the length of I. What is observed at the magnet when the
the solenoid. Therefore the longer the solenoid the switch is closed?
stronger the electromagnet.
II. Explain the observation in the question above.
IV. The shape of the core -horse - shoe shaped core
III. If the terminals of the cells are reversed state
produces a stronger electromagnet than u- shaped
what is observed on the magnets.
core while a u-shaped core produces a stronger
electromagnet than a straight core. IV. What name of making a magnet is illustrated in
the above arrangement?
Exercise
V. What are the two advantages of this method
1. In the diagram below the soft iron core is placed
over other methods of magnetization?
inside a coil connected to a d.c source.
3. In an experiment to determine the strength of an
electromagnet, the weight of pins that can be
supported by the electromagnet, was recorded
against the number of turns. The current was kept
constant throughout the experiment.

The table below shows the data that was obtained.

I. Plot a graph of weight, W, against number of turns,

n.

II. Use the domain theory to explain the nature of the

graph

III. Sketch on the same axes the curve that will be

obtained using a higher current

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Force on a current carrying conductor (The Motor Effect) Exercise

 A conductor carrying current placed in a magnetic Show the resultant magnetic field and direction of force
field experiences a force. This is called the motor of the conductor in each of the following.
effect.

 Consider the set up diagram below for a conductor

carrying current in a magnetic field.

 For rectangular coil in a magnetic field, one side

 The magnetic field concentrates at the top of the experiences an upward force and the other side a
conductor than at the bottom thereby creating a downward force and the coil is set into a rotation.
region of strong field. The reason for this is that the Below is an example.
field due to electric current in the conductor and that
of the magnets reinforce each other since they are
directed in the same direction.

 The relatively weak field at the bottom of the

conductor is as result of cancellation between the two
fields since they are directed in opposite directions.
The resultant force therefore acts on the conductor
downwards.

 The direction of force on conductor can be predicted

by Fleming’s left hand rule which states that “If the
thumb, first and second fingers are held mutually at
right angles with the first finger pointing the direction

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of magnetic field, the second finger in the direction of

current, then the thumb points in the direction of
force”

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Force between Parallel Straight Current Carrying When a current is passed through the coil in the direction
Conductors PQRS the coil starts to turn, and eventually becomes to
rest. With the aid of diagrams explain:
a. Parallel Conductors Carrying Current in Same
Direction I. Why the coil begins to turn

II. In which direction it begins to turn

III. Why it comes to rest

IV. The position in which it comes to rest

2. The apparatus shown below may be used to cause

 The magnetic field between the conductors is weaker rider AB move along the rods C and D
due to cancellation than the field from the outer side.
The resultant force on the conductors acts to push
them towards each other.

b. Parallel Conductors Carrying Current In Opposite

Direction

I. When current flows along AB, in what direction

will it roll? Explain.

 The fields between the conductors repel each other II. What happens to the rider when current is
since they are directed in same direction. A force, increased?
therefore, acts on the conductors to pull them apart
III. State the rule that can be used to predict the
(outwards)
direction of force acting on the rider.
Factors Affecting Force on a Conductor Carrying Current
in a Magnetic Field
Applications of Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current
1. Magnitude of electric current-force increases with
current 1. Electric bell
2. Strength of magnetic field – force increases with
strength of the magnetic field

3. Length of the conductor in the field – the longer the

length the stronger the force

4. Angle the conductor makes with the magnetic field –

force increases with the angle. It is maximum when
the conductor is at an angle of 900 with the magnetic
field

Exercise

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1. The figure below shows a rectangular coil PQRS of

many turns of wire located in a magnetic field due to
two poles north and south. The coil is free to rotate on
the vertical axis CD.

 The capacitor is used to reduce sparking effect at the

contacts. The circuit is completed at the contact
spring and contact screw.

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Working Mechanism of an Electric Bell  The current is then reversed in the coil and the forces
acting on each side reverse in direction. Side AB is
 When current is switched on, it flows through the now on the right with a downward force while side CD
circuit and the soft iron core becomes magnetized. is on the left with an upward force. The coil continues
The magnetized iron core then attracts the sot iron to rotate.
armature, which has a hammer at its end. On
attraction, the hammer knocks the gong and the bell
rings.
3. Simple magnetic relay
 When the soft iron armature is attracted, the contact
at the contact screw is broken and current stops  In a magnetic relay, one circuit is used to control
flowing. The electromagnet loses its magnetism and another circuit without any direct electrical connection
releases the soft iron armature and this closes the between them.
contact again.

 This process is repeated and the bell rings

continuously as long as the switch is closed.

2. Electric Motor

 It is a devise which converts electrical energy into

rotational kinetic energy.

 The permanent magnets are curved at the ends to Working Mechanism of Magnetic Relay
produce radial magnetic field.
 When the switch is closed, current flows through
Functions of Carbon Brush circuit X; electromagnet is made on the solenoid and
in turn attracts the soft iron armature. The closes the
a) Presses lightly against the commutators so that that contacts in circuit Y.
the coil rotates freely and easily.
4. Circuit Breakers
b) Connect the coil to the electric current source.
 Circuit breakers are used to protect electrical
Reasons why carbon brushes and commutators are made components from excessive flow of current.
of graphite

a) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.

b) It serves as a lubricant since it is slippery.

Working Mechanism of the Electric Motor

 When the coil is horizontal and current passes

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through it as shown on the diagram, side AB

experiences an upward force while BC experiences a
downward force. The two forces make the coil rotate
in the clockwise direction.

 When the coil is in the vertical position with AB at the

top and CD at the bottom, the brushes touch the
spaces between the two split rings.

 Due to momentum, the coil continues to rotate and

the commutators interchange the contact positions
with the brushes.

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Working Mechanism of a Circuit Breaker

 When excess current flows through the circuit,

increased magnetic power of the electromagnet
opens the switch, thus stopping current flow.

Revision exercise

a. State two factors that affect strength of an

electromagnet

b. In the set up below the suspended meter rule is

balanced by the magnet and the weight shown. The
iron core is fixed on the bench.

i. State and explain the effect on the meter rule

when the switch is closed.

ii. What would be the effect of reversing the battery

terminals?

iii. Suggest how the set up in the figure can be

adopted to measure the current flowing in the
current circuit.

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Chapter Eight WAVES I

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Pulses and waves

a) Describe the formation of pulses and waves 2. Transverse and longitudinal waves

b) Describe transverse and longitudinal waves 3. Amplitude (a) , wavelength (λ), frequency (f),
periodic time(T)
c) Define amplitude (a), wavelength (λ), frequency
(f), and periodic time (T) 4. V= fλ

d) Derive the relation V= fλ 5. Problems involving V= fλ.

e) Solve numerical problems involving V=fλ

Introduction Classification of Mechanical Waves

 In this topic basic concepts about waves are studied. a. Transverse waves
Knowledge about waves has been broadly applied in
daily life e.g. in radio and television, mobile phones,
remote control system, heat energy radiation etc.
 These are waves in which displacement of medium
Definition of a wave particles is at right angle to the direction of
propagation of the wave. Examples of transverse
 A wave refers to the transmission of a disturbance. A wave are water waves, waves on a rope swung up and
wave therefore transmits energy from one point to down. Transverse waves travel as a series of crests
another. and troughs.

Classification of Waves

 Waves can be broadly classified as electromagnet or

mechanical in nature.

1. Electromagnet waves

 These are waves which do not require material  A crest is the highest point of a transverse wave while
medium for transmission. Such waves can be a trough is the lowest point of a transverse wave
propagated in vacuum. Examples of electromagnetic
waves are Radio waves, Radiant heat e.g. from sun,  Formation of transverse wave can be illustrated by
light, Microwaves etc. swinging a slinky spring or a rope fixed at one end up
and down.
 NB: Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature

b. Longitudinal waves
2. Mechanical waves
 These are waves in which displacement of medium
 These are waves which do require a material medium particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of

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for transmission. Such waves cannot be propagated the wave. Examples of longitudinal wave are Sound
in vacuum. Examples of mechanical waves are water wave, waves on a slinky spring fixed at one end and
waves, sound waves etc. vibrated to and two etc.

 Longtudional waves consists of sections of

rarefactions andcompressions. Compressions are
sections of high pressure in which particles are
ppushed closer together while rarefactions are
sections of low pressure in which particles are pulled
slightly further a part from one another.Pressure
variation in a longtudional wave is what causes wave
motion.
Terms Associated with Waves

 Consider the transverse waveform and an oscillating

pendulum bobshown below.

 Formaton of longtudinal wave ca be illustrated by

vibrating a slinky spring fixed at one end to and fro
along its length.

Examples

a. What is a progressive wave?

It is a wave that moves continualy away from the

source. 1. Oscillation – an oscillation is a complete to and ffo
motion. For example, in the above oscillating bob, a
b. Explain why the amplitude of a progressive wave complete oscillation is D-E-F-E-D.
decreases gradually from the source.
2. Amplitude, A - it is the maximum displacement of a
As the wave move away from the source, the

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energy is spread over an increasingly large area. particle from mean position. Its SI unit is the metre
(m). For an oscillating pendulum bob above DE or EF
Exercise is the amplitude.
1. Diferentiate between electromagnetic and 3. Wavelength, λ – it is the distance between any two
mechanical wave giving one example in each particles in a wave that are in phase. It is denoted by
Greek letter lambda, λ. Its SI unit is the meter (m).
2. State two categories waves.
Note: Particles in a wave are said to be in phase if they
3. State two types of mechanical waves. State the are oscillating in same direction and at the same level of
difference between them. displacement.
4. Give two examples of mechanical waves.

Pulse

 A pulse is a single disturbance that is transimitted

through a medium.It can be transverse or longtudional
in nature. Generation of a pulse can be illustrated by
jerking a rope fixed at one end just once. Particles A and D, B and E are in phase. C and D are out
of phase by 1800.

 From the wave equation, if speed of the wave is

constant, frequency is inversely proportional to
wavelength. This can be presented graphically as
shown below.

Example

The figure below shows a displacement-time graph of a wave

travelling at 2500cms-1
4. Period, T- it’s the time taken by a particle to complete
one oscillation. SI unit of period is the second(s )

5. Frequency, f– it is the number of complete

oscillations (full wavelengths) made by a particle in
one second. SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).

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Relationship between Frequency and Period

I
 Frequency is the reciprocal of period i.e. f =
T

6. Speed of the wave -It is the distance covered by a

wave in one second.

The Wave Equation

Determine for the wave:
 The wave equation relates Speed, V, Wavelength, λ
and Frequency, f of a Wave a) Amplitude

distance Solution
 Generally, speed =
time
A = maximum displacement from mean position
 For a distance of wavelength covered by a wave, time
taken is equivalent to the period of the wave. = 3cm OR 0.03m in SI units

wavelength b) Periodic time

∴ speed =
period
Solution
λ I
V= = λ× T = (9 - 1)x 10-3s
T T
= 8x10-3s
I
But, f = and therefore V = λf
T

This is called the wave speed equation

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c) Frequency 10. Water waves are observed as they pass a fixed point at a
rate of 30 crests per minute. A particular wave crest takes 2
Solution seconds to travel between two points 6m apart. Determine:

I 1 i. The frequency
f= = Hz
T 8X10-3
ii. The wavelength
= 0.125×10-3Hz = 125Hz
11. Calculate the wavelength of the KBC FM radio wave
d) Wavelength transmitted at a frequency of 95.6 MHz

Solution 12. The audible frequency range for a certain person is between
30 Hz and 16500 Hz. Determine the largest wavelength of
V = fλ sound in air the person can detect(speed of sound in air is
333m/s)
V 250ms-1
λ= = = 2m
f 125s-1. 13. The figure below represents a displacement-time graph for
a wave.
Revision Exercise

1. State the wave formula

2. Sketch the variation of frequency with wavelength given that

speed of the wave remains constant

3. Name two types of progressive wave motion.

4. A vibrator sends out 12 ripples per second across a ripple

tank. The ripples are observed to be 5cm apart. Find the i. Determine the frequency of the wave
velocity of the ripples.
ii. Sketch on the same axes the displacement-time
5. A water wave travels 2m in 5 seconds. If the frequency of graph of the wave of same frequency but 1800 out
the wave is 10Hz, calculate the: of phase and with smaller amplitude.

I. Speed of the wave

II. Wavelength of the wave

6. The diagram below shows a displacement-time graph for a

certain wave.

I. How many oscillations are shown above?

II. Calculate the frequency of the wave

III. Calculate the periodic time of the wave

7. Sketch the wave form of twice the frequency of the wave

above.

8. Electromagnetic waves travels at a velocity of 3.0x108ms-1

in air, calculate the wavelength in air of radio waves

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transmitted at a frequency of 200MHz.

9. Wave ripples are caused to travel across the surface of a

shallow tank by means of a suitable straight vibrator. The
distance between successive crests is 6.0cm and the waves
travel 50.4cm in 3.6 seconds. Calculate:

i. The wavelength

ii. Velocity

iii. Frequency of the vibrator.

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Chapter Nine FLUID FLOW

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Streamline and turbulent flow

a) Describe streamline flow and turbulent flow 2. Equation of continuity

b) Derive the equation of continuity 3. Bernoulli’s effect (experimental treatment required)

c) Describe experiments to illustrate Bernoulli’s effects 4. Application of Bernoulli’s effect: Bunsen burner, spray
gun, carburetor, aero foil, spinning ball etc.
d) Explain the Bernoulli’s effect
5. Problems on equation of continuity
e) Describe the application of Bernoulli’s effect

f) Solve numerical problems involving the equation of

continuity

Fluid Characteristics of Streamline Flow

 A fluid refers to any substance that is capable of I. Streamlines are parallel to each other.
flowing due to pressure difference. It includes both
liquids and gases. Examples of fluid flow include: II. Streamline flow is smooth and steady.
perfume spray from a perfume bottle, flow of water
along a river bed, smoke from chimney etc. A flowing  Some shapes and bodies are designed to be
fluid experiences internal resistance called viscosity. streamlined to enhance their motion in fluids. A body
is said to be streamlined if it does not affect the
Types of Fluid Flow distribution of streamlines behind it.

 There two types of fluid flow: streamline (steady) and

turbulent flows

1. Streamline (steady) flow

 It is a flow in which at any given point each and every

particle of the fluid travels in the same direction and
with same velocity.

 A streamline refers to the path followed by the particle  Examples of streamlined bodies include: cars, jumbo
in a streamline flow. It is represented by a line with an jets, birds that fly, fish etc.
arrow head.

 Note: Streamlines do not cross each other but are

closer where the fluid is moving faster

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2. Turbulent Flow  If the velocity of fluid through region B is vB, the

average cross-section area of tube is AB and the
 It is a flow in which the speed and direction of the distance covered by the fluid in direction of flow is for
fluid particles passing at any point vary with time. time, tB, is dB, then the volume flux through that region
Turbulent flow occurs due to:
is :
I. Abrupt change of cross sectional area of the
volume V
tube of flow. volume flux or flow rate = =
time tB

But volume = cross–section area× length

V = AB×dB

dB×AB dB
II. Speed of the fluid flow changes sharply or Volume flux = = ×AB
suddenly and beyond a critical velocity. tB tB

III. An obstacle is placed on the path of dB

But, = Velocity, vB
streamlines and blocks or breaks the tB
streamlines.
∴ Volume flux = vB×AB

Volume flux = velocity ×cross section area of tube of flow

Mass Flux

 It is the mass of a fluid that flows through a given

section of tube of flow per unit time.
Characteristics of Turbulent Flow
mass
mass flux =
i. The streamlines are not continuous time

ii. Particles do not travel in same direction and have But, mass = density ×volume.
different velocity.
That is, m = ρ×V.
Notes:
ρ×V
∴ mass flux =
1. When bodies which are not streamlined (non- t
streamlined) move in fluids, they cause eddies
V
(turbulence) in the fluid. A body is said to be non- But, = volume flux.
t
streamlined if it produces eddies behind it.
mass flux = density of fluid,ρ×volume flux
2. Critical velocity is the speed of flow of fluid beyond
which the fluid exhibits turbulent flow. ∴ mass flux
= density of fluid×velocity of fluid×cross
Volume Flux (Flow Rate) -section area of tube
 This is the volume of a fluid passing through a given The Equation of the Continuity
section of a tube of flow per unit time.
Assumptions made in deriving the equation of the
volume of fluid passing givensection continuity
Volume flux = .
time the fluid takes to pass the section
1. The fluid is flowing steadily (i.e. has a streamline
 SI unit of volume flux is cubic meter per second flow)
(m3/s)
2. The fluid is incompressible

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 Consider a fluid flowing through a section B of flow 3. The fluid is non- viscous.
tube shown below.

Deriving Equation of Continuity a) What is the velocity of the liquid between A and B?

 Consider the tube of flow below with changing cross- Solution

section areas.
Flow rate
 Section 1 has a cross section area of A1 while section
2 has cross section area of A2.Velocity of fluid in volume
= = cross - section area,A×velocity,v
section 1 is v1 while in section 2 is v2. v1 > v2 time

8×10-6m3
 Volume of fluid flowing through section 1 per unit = 1×10-4m2×v
1s
time is equal to volume of fluid flowing through
section 2 per unit time i.e. flow rate/ volume flux is a 8×10-6m3
constant. v= = 8×10-2ms-1
1 s×1×10-4m2
Volume flux in section 1 = volume flux in section 2
b) What is the velocity of the liquid between BC?
A1v1=A2 v2
Solution
i.e. cross section area ×velocity = constant A1v1=A2 v2

A v = constant.

 This is the equation of continuity which is also called

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flow rate equation. 1×10-4m2×8×10-2ms-1 = 1×10-6m2×v2

1×10-4m2×8×10-2ms-1
v2 = = 8 ms-1
1×10-6m2

Examples

1. Water flows through a horizontal pipe at a rate of

1.00m3/min. Determine the velocity of the water at a
point where the diameter of the pipe is 1.00cm Exercise

Solution 1. A garden sprinkler has small holes, each 2.00 mm2 in

area. If water is supplied at the rate of 3.0x10-3 m3s-1
flow rate = Av and the average velocity of the spray is 10ms-1,
1.00 m3
calculate the number of the holes.
= π(1.00×10-2 2)2m2×v
60 s 2. Oil flows through a 6cm internal diameter pipe at an
average velocity of 5ms-1. Find the flow rate in m3/s
1.00
v= = 212.18 ms-1 and cm/s
60×π×2.5×10-5
3. The velocity of glycerin in a 5cm internal diameter
2. In figure below, the tube ABC is filled with a liquid.
pipe is 1.00m/s. Find the velocity in a 3cm internal
The piston moves from A to B in 1 second.
diameter pipe that connects with it, both pipes
flowing full.

Bernoulli’s Effect

 It states that: provided a fluid is non- viscous, in

compressible and its flow streamline an increase in
its velocity produces a corresponding decreases in
a) What is the volume of the liquid in point AB the pressure it exerts while a decrease in its velocity
produces a corresponding increase in pressure.
Solution
Bernoulli’s Effect in Practice
volume = cross - section area×length
1. Consider the set- up below in which pipe A and C have
volume = 1×10-4m2×8×10-2m = 8×10-6m3 some diameter tubes

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4. A light paper held in front of the mouth and air blown

horizontally over it is observed to rise. This is because
the velocity of air above paper increases leading to
reduction in pressure. The higher atmospheric
pressure acting from below produces a force that lifts
the paper upwards.

 When air is blown into the tube by a blower, it is

observed that water rises to same level in tube D and
F. In E the level of water is higher than D and F.

 Velocity of air in pipe A and C are the same due to Bernoulli’s Principle
same cross- sectional areas. Moving air causes a
reduction of pressure and since resulting air pressure  It states that: ”provided the fluid is non- viscous
is the same, atmospheric pressure pushes up the incompressible and has a streamline flow, the sum of
water to the same level. pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume and potential
energy per unit volume is a constant”.
 The speed of moving air in narrower section B is
higher and the resulting pressure is much lower than Mathematical Expression for Bernoulli’s Principle
A and C, hence water rises to higher level in E.
 Consider a fluid of density, ρ, mass, m, flowing
through a pipe with a velocity,v and pressure at any
given point, P.
2. When air is blown above the opening of the flask
shown the pith ball is observed to rise from the
bottom.

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kinetic energy
The kinetic energy per unit volume =
volume;

1 2
mv
2 mv2 m
= ; but ρ =
V 2V V

1
∴ kinetic energy per unit volume = ρV2
2

potential energy
Potential energy per unit volume =
volume

 The blown air causes reduction of pressure at the top mgh

= ρgh
therefore, there is a net force upwards as the pressure V
difference pushes the pith ball upwards.
∴ Bernoulli’s principle can be expressed as:

1 2
P+ ρV + ρgh = constant
2
3. When air is blown horizontally between two
suspended balloons in the horizontal direction, the Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
balloons are observed to move towards each other.
1. The Aero foil

 It is a structure designed in such way that the fluid

moving above it moves with a higher speed than the
one moving below

 Moving air leads to reduced pressure on the inner

sides of the balloons. The higher atmospheric
pressure acting on the outer surfaces causes the
balloons to move closer to each other.

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 The pressure above the aero foil is therefore lower  Air velocity at constriction is higher. This makes the
than the pressure below it. The pressure difference pressure at the constriction drop. The atmospheric
between the top and bottom gives rise to the lift of the pressure being higher pushes the petrol to the
aero foil. This is called dynamic lift. constriction.

Revision Exercise

2. Bunsen burner 1. The figure below shows a pith ball placed in a flask.
When a jet of air is blown over the mouth of the flask
as shown, the pith ball is observed to rise from the
bottom.

 When gas is made to flow into the Bunsen burner, its

velocity increases as it passes through the nozzle; this Explain this observation
decreases the pressure above the nozzle. Because of
higher atmospheric pressure outside the barrel, air is 2. State Bernoulli’s principle
then drawn in.
3. A pipe of radius 6mm is connected to another pipe of
 The air and the gas then mix as they rise up and when radius 9mm. If water flows in the wider pipe at the
ignited a flame is produced. speed of 2ms-1, what is the speed in the narrower
pipe?

4. The figure below shows a tube of varying cross-

3. Spray Gun section area. v1,v2,v3 and v4 represent the speed of
water as it flows steadily through the sections of the

tube

Arrange the speeds v1,v2,v3 and v4 in decreasing

order starting with the highest.

5. The figure below shows a sheet of paper rolled into a

tube.
 When the piston is pushed forward air is made to flow
through the barrel and therefore causes low pressure
in the barrel. High atmospheric pressure on the
surface of the liquid compels the liquid to move up
the tube.
When a fast stream of air is blown into the tube as shown
 The velocity of the liquid is increased as it pushes
in the diagram the paper tube collapses. Explain the
through the nozzle due to reduced cross section area.
observation.
The liquid therefore emerges as a fine spray.
6. The figure below shows a horizontal tube with two
vertical tubes X and Y. water flows through the
4. The carburetor. horizontal tube from right to left. The water level in
tube X is higher than water level in tube Y.

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Explain this observation

Chapter Ten REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to: 1. Concave, convex and parabolic reflectors

a) Describe concave, convex and parabolic reflectors 2. Principal axis, principal focus, centre of curvature
and related terms
b) Describe using ray diagrams the principal axis,
principal focus centre of curvature and related terms. 3. Location of images formed by curved mirrors by
construction method (experiment on curved
c) Locate images formed by curved mirrors by mirrors required)
construction
4. Magnification formula
d) Determine experimentally the characteristics of
images formed by concave mirror 5. Applications of curved reflectors

e) Define magnification

f) Explain the applications of curved reflectors

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Introduction 3. Parabolic Reflector/ Mirror

 Curved reflectors are obtained from hollow spheres,  It is a curved reflector whose reflecting surface
cones or cylinders. The surfaces of these hollow curves more inwards than that of the concave
solids are then highly polished from the inside or reflector. It is obtained by highly polishing the outside
outside depending on the type of curved reflector of a glass cone.
being made. Concave and convex mirrors are also
called spherical mirrors.

Types of Curved Reflectors

1. Concave Reflector/ Mirror

 This is a reflector whose reflecting surface curves

inwards. It is obtained by highly polishing the outside
of a glass sphere portion. Terms Associated with Curved Reflectors

 Consider the diagrams below;

2. Convex Reflector/ Mirror

 This is a reflector whose reflecting surface curves

outwards. It is obtained by highly polishing the inside
of a glass sphere portion.

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a. Aperture

 This is the width of the mirror

b. Pole, P
j. Focal length, f
 This is the geometrical centre of the mirror.
 This is the distance from the pole of the mirror to its
c. Centre of curvature, C principal focus.

 This is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror Note: In optics full lines represent real rays and objects
forms a part. The centre of curvature of a concave while dotted lines represent virtual rays and images.
mirror is in front while that of a convex mirror is
behind the mirror. Exercise

d. Radius of curvature, r The figure below shows two parallel rays incident on a
concave mirror. F is the focal point of the mirror.
 It is the radius of a sphere of which the curved mirror
forms a part.

e. Principal/ main axis

 This is the line passing through the pole and the

centre of curvature of the curved mirror.
Sketch on the same diagram the path of the rays after
f. Paraxial rays and marginal rays striking the mirror.
 These are rays which are close and parallel to the Relationship between Radius of Curvature and Focal
principal axis while marginal rays are those that are Length
parallel but not close to the principal axis.
 It can be shown through geometry that the radius of
g. Principal focus, F, of a concave mirror curvature is twice the focal length i.e.
 It is the point at which all the rays parallel and close to r = 2f
the principal axis converge after reflection. Principal
focus of a concave mirror is real because reflected Laws of Reflection in Curved Mirrors
rays actually pass through it.
 Reflection at curved surfaces also obeys laws of
h. Principal focus, F, of a convex mirror reflection:

 These is the point at which all rays parallel and close 1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
to the principal axis appear to emerge/ diverge from reflection at the point of incidence

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after reflection. The principal focus of a convex mirror 2. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all
is virtual because reflected rays only appear to pass lie on the same plane at the point of incidence.
through it.

i. Focal plane

 This is a plane perpendicular to the principal axis and

passes through the principal focus. For a concave
mirror, parallel rays which are not parallel to the
principal axis converge at a point on the focal plane
after reflection. For a convex mirror, parallel rays
which are not parallel to the principal axis appear to
emerge from a point on focal plane after reflection.

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3. A ray through the centre of curvature (for concave) or

appearing to pass through centre of curvature (for
convex mirror) is reflected along the same path.

Ray Diagrams

 Ray diagrams are used to show and explain how

images are formed by curved mirrors and the
characteristics of these images.

Four Major Cases in the Construction of Ray Diagrams

1. A ray close and parallel to principal axis passes 4. A ray at an angle to the principal axis and incident at
through principal focus (for concave mirror) or the pole is reflected in such a way that the angle of
appears to emerge from the principal focus (for incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
convex mirror) after reflection.

2. A ray through the principal focus of a concave or

appearing to be directed to the principal focus of
convex mirror is reflected parallel to the principal Characteristics of Images Formed by Curved Reflectors
axis.
A. Concave mirrors

i. Object at infinity

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 Image is real, formed at F, inverted and smaller than

the object.

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ii. Object at c  The image formed is behind the mirror, virtual, upright
and larger than the object.

B. Convex mirror

 Irrespective of the distance of the object in front of

the mirror, images formed by convex mirrors are
 Image formed is at C, real, inverted and same size as
always upright, smaller than the object and between P
the object.
and F.

iii. Object beyond C

Example

A lady holds a large concave mirror of focal length 1 m,

 Image formed is between C and F, real, inverted and 80 cm from her face.
smaller than the object.
a. Using suitable construction illustrate how her
image is formed

iv. Object between C and F

b. State two characteristics of her image in the

mirror.

o Image upright
 The image formed is beyond C, real, inverted, larger
than the object (magnified) o Image magnified
v. Object at F Exercise

1. The figure below shows a ray of light incident on a

convex mirror

 The image is formed at infinity because the rays

emerge parallel after reflection.
Using suitable construction, determine the radius of
vi. Object between F and P curvature of the mirror.

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2. The figure below shows parabolic surface with a

source of light placed at its focal point F

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Draw rays to show reflection from the surface when ii. Size of the image
rays from the source strike the surface at points A, B, C
and D iii. Nature of the image

3. The figure below shows a vertical object, O, placed in iv. magnification

front of a convex mirror
solution

On the same diagram draw the appropriate rays and

locate the image formed.

4. The figure below shows a bright behind a screen

which has a hole covered with wire gauze. A concave
mirror of focal length 25 cm is placed in front of the
screen. The position of the mirror is adjusted until a i. Image position is 13.6 X 2 = 27.2 cm from P in
sharp image of the gauze is formed on the screen. front of the mirror.

ii. Size of the image is 6.6 X 2 = 13.2 cm

iii. Nature of the image: the image is inverted, real

and magnified

image height 13.2 cm

iv. magnification = = = 4.4
object height 3 cm

Determine the distance between the screen and the

mirror.
2. A convex mirror of focal length 15 cm produces an
Graphical Construction of Ray Diagrams image 10 cm away from the mirror. If the image is 3
cm high, determine by scale drawing
 Images are drawn to scale in a ray diagram and this is
best done on graph paper. i. The object distance

Linear (Transverse) Magnification ii. Object height/ size

 It is the ratio of the image height to the object height. iii. Magnification
It can also be defined as the ratio of the image
distance to the object distance. Solution

Linear (transverse) magnification

image height image distance

= =
object height object distance

Examples

1. An object 3 cm high is placed 6 cm in front of a

concave mirror of radius of curvature 10 cm. By scale

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drawing determine the:

i. Position of the image

i. The object distance is 6 X 5 = 30 cm

ii. Object height/ size is 1.4 X 5 = 7 cm

image height
iii. Magnification =
object height

3 cm
= = 0.4285
7 cm

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Exercise 2. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a convex mirror

of focal length 20 cm. Determine the position and
1. A concave mirror of focal length 10 cm forms a nature of the image.
sharp image at 40 cm from the mirror. Determine
graphically the position of the object and Solution
magnification of the image.
f is negative (-20 cm) according to real-is-positive
2. A concave mirror of focal length 20 cm forms a convention
real image two times the size of the object. If the
object height is 10 cm, determine by scale drawing: 1 1 1
= +
f u v
i. The object distance
1 1 1
- = +
ii. The image distance 20 10 v

The Mirror Formula 1 1 1 3

=- - =-
v 20 10 20
The object distance u, the focal length fand the image
distance v related by the mirror formula: 20
v=- = -6.667 cm
3
1 1 1
= +
f u v The image is virtual ( because v is negative), upright and
diminished (because v is smaller than u)
Real-Is-Positive Convention
3. A concave mirror with radius of curvature 10 cm
 This is a sign convention used with the mirror formula produces an inverted image two times the size of an
in order to determine the position and nature of the object placed in front of it and perpendicular to the
image formed by a curved mirror. According to the principal axis. Determine the position of:
real-is-positive sign convention:
a. The object
a) All distances are measured from the mirror as the
origin. b. The image

b) Distances of real objects and images are Solution

considered positive e.g. focal length of concave
mirrors. r 10 v
f= = = 5 cm ;m = = 2; v = 2u
2 2 u
c) Distances of virtual objects and images are
considered negative e.g. focal length of convex 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
= + ; = + ↔ = + =
mirror. f u v f u 2u 5 u 2u 2u

Examples 3 1
= ↔u = 7.5 cm and ∴ v = 2×7.5 cm = 15 cm
2u 5
1. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror
of focal length 20 cm. Determine the position and Exercise
nature of the image.
1. The distance between an erect image and the
Solution object is 40 cm. The image is twice as tall as the
object. Determine:
1 1 1
= + i. The object distance.
f u v

1 1 1 ii. The radius of curvature.

= +
20 10 v
2. A vertical object 10 cm high is placed 20 cm away
from a con vex mirror of radius of curvature 30 cm.

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1 1 1 1 determine:
= - =-
v 20 10 20
i. The image distance.
v = -20 cm
ii. The height of the image.
The image is virtual ( because v is negative), upright and
magnified (because v is greater than u) iii. The magnification of the image.

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3. The distance between an object and its magnified  Therefore, a graph of uv against u + v is a straight line
real image produced by a concave mirror is 40 cm through the origin whose gradient is positive. The
when the object is placed 20 cm from the pole of gradient of the graph gives f
the mirror. Determine the:

i. Transverse magnification of the image.

3. Graph of m against v
ii. The focal length of the mirror.
1 1 1
 From the mirror formula = + , multiplying all
Graphical Analysis of the Mirror Formula f u v
through by v gives
1 1
1. Graph of against
u v v v v v v
= + ↔ = +1
f u v f u
 It is a straight line graph with a negative gradient,
implying that the image is inverted relative to the v v
=m+ 1, since =m
object. f u

v
∴m= -1
f

1 1 1
The - intercept or the - intercept gives

u v f

2. Graph of uv against u + v

1 1 1  Therefore, a graph of m against vis a straight line with

 From the mirror formula = + ,
f u v 1
agradient of and m - intercept is -1. Also the
f
1 v+u uv v - intercept gives the focal length, f
= ; f=
f uv v+u

Exercise

A concave mirror and an illuminated object are used to

produce a sharp image of the object on a screen. The

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object distances and image distances are given below.

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Object 80.0 26.7 22.4 20.6 19.6

distance,
u (cm)
Image 20.0 40.0 56.0 72.0 88
distance,
v (cm)
u + v (cm)
uv (cm2)
Magnification,
m
1. Complete the table 5. Used as solar concentrators to bring light energy into
focus.
2. Using suitable values:

1 1
i. Plot a graph of against
u v B. Convex Mirrors

ii. Determine the radius of curvature, f from

the graph
1. Used as car and motorcycle side mirrors because
3. Plot a graph of uv against u + v and use it to find the they form upright images and have a wide field of
radius of curvature, f view

4. Plot a graph ofmagnification, m against v and use it 2. Used in supermarkets to monitor movement of
to find the radius of curvature, f customers because they form upright images and
have a wide field of view
Applications of Curved Mirrors

A. Concave Mirrors

1. Used as shaving mirrors because they produce

magnified and upright images when the object is
between principal focus, F and the pole, P.

2. Used by dentist when examining teeth they produce

magnified and upright images when the object is  Note: The defect of spherical mirrors in which
between principal focus, F and the pole, P. marginal rays are not brought into focus at the
principal focus resulting in blurred images is called
spherical aberration.

Disadvantage of Convex Mirror

1. Convex mirror forms diminished images giving an

impression that the vehicles behind are farther away
than they actually are.

3. Used as reflector behind projector lamp to reflect light

travelling away from the projector. The lamp is placed
at the centre of curvature of the concave mirror. C. Parabolic Mirrors

 Used for propagation of parallel light beams of high

intensity in hand torches, searchlights and car head
lights.

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Advantage of Parabolic Mirrors over Concave Mirrors

 Unlike concave mirrors in which marginal rays are not

converged at principal focus, parabolic mirror
converges all rays parallel to principal axis and
incident on its surface at its principal focus.

4. Used in telescopes to bring distance objects (objects

at infinity) like stars into focus at the focal point.

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Revision questions
1. With the aid of a well labeled diagram, explain the
wide field of view of a convex mirror.

2. State on application of each of the following

i. Convex mirror.

ii. Parabolic mirror

3. The figure below which is drawn to a scale of 1:5

represent an object O and its image I formed by a
convex mirror.

By drawing suitable rays, locate and mark on the

figure the position of the principal focus, F of the
mirror. Determine the focal length, f.

4. The figure below shows a point object O placed in

front of a convex mirror.

Draw appropriate rays to locate the image of the

object.

5. State the advantage parabolic mirror over

concave mirror.

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