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232
FORM TWO PHYSICS
HANDBOOK
[With well drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]
(Vision 2030 Edition)

LABO ATOMS

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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page 2

BRIEF PERSONAL PROFILE Page 2

GUIDELINES IN MY LIFE Page 2

Chapter 1 MAGNETISM Page 3

Chapter 2 MEASUREMENT II Page 9

Chapter 3 TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE Page 15

Chapter 4 EQUILIBRIUM AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY Page 18

Chapter 5 SOUND Page 21

Chapter 6 HOOKE’S LAW Page 25

Chapter 7 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT Page 30

Chapter 8 WAVES I Page 36

Chapter 9 FLUID FLOW Page 40

Chapter 10 REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES Page 45

Acknowledgement

First and foremost I thank the Almighty God for the gift of life, energy, knowledge and skills to pursue this work.

Lines that influence activities in my life.

1. God is always there to assist provided you ask for Him.

2. At its best, Physics eliminates complexity by revealing underlying simplicity.

3. There is no method of changing your fate except through hard work.

4. Cohesion with immediate neighbours and determination always betters your immediate environment.

Chapter One MAGNETISM

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Properties of magnets

1. Magnetic poles

 Magnetic poles refer to the ends of a magnet where

the power of attraction or repulsion is greatest.

 The force of attraction of a magnet is greatest at its poles.

The force reduces away from poles. This is why when a bar
magnet is dipped in iron fillings, the fillings cling mainly
around the ends of the magnet.

 Repulsion is the only sure test for polarity of magnet.

2. Directional property of a magnet This is because repulsion can only occur between like
poles of magnets. Attraction is not sure test because it can
 If a magnet is suspended by a thread and is free to rotate occur between unlike poles of magnets or between a
it rotates and finally rests in the in the North- south
magnet and unmagnified magnetic material.
direction. This is called the directional property of a
magnet.

Exercise

1) Describe how you would verify the basic law

of magnetism given two bar magnets and a piece
of thread

Solution

Procedure

Suspend one bar magnet. Bring the north pole of another

magnet towards the north pole of the suspended magnet and
observe what happens.

Bring the same pole towards the south pole of the suspended
3. Magnetic and non- magnetic materials magnet.

 Magnetic materials are those that can be attracted by Observations and conclusion
magnets e.g. Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Iron alloy like steel,
A north pole attracts a south pole and repels a north pole
Nickel alloy etc.
while a south pole repels a south pole. Hence, like poles repel
 Non-magnetic materials are those that cannot be attracted while unlike poles attract.
by a magnet e.g. Copper, Brass, Aluminium, Glass, wood,
Magnetic field patterns
Graphite
Magnetic field
 Ferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials that are
strongly attracted by magnet e.g. soft iron  The space around a magnet where the magnetic influence
(magnetic force of attraction and repulsion) is felt

4. The Basic Law of Magnetism

 The field is stronger near the poles of the magnet and

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It states that like poles of magnets repel while unlike poles is weaker farther away from the poles.
attract.

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Magnetic field lines  Point x is called neutral point. The resultant magnetic
field at the neutral point is zero.
 These are lines of force which represent a magnetic field.
These lines form a magnetic field patterns.  Magnetic field lines get concentrated along the soft iron.

Direction of magnetic field

 The direction of magnetic field at a point is the direction

to which a free north pole would move if placed at that
point in the field.

Characteristics/ properties of magnetic field lines

a) Magnetic field lines start from the North Pole and end at
the South Pole.  The soft iron ring concentrates the magnetic field lines
thus preventing them from pausing through region P.
This is called magnetic shielding and region P is
therefore said to be shielded by the ring from magnetic
fields.

Practical application of magnetic shielding

b) They repel each other sideways and form closed paths as  The soft iron rods and rings are used in magnetic
shown above. shielding where some electrical measuring instruments
and watches are shielded and protected from stray
c) They do not intersect each other. magnetic fields.

Exercise

1. Describe how you would shield a magnetic

material from a magnetic field. State one
application of magnetic shielding.

2. Explain the meaning of the following

d) They are closer together where the field is stronger. i. Magnetic field

ii. Magnetic lines of force

3. The diagram below the magnetic field patterns

between two magnets P and Q

 Consider two bar magnets with opposite poles adjacent.

1. Identify poles A and B

2. State which of the two magnets P and Q is

stranger. Explain.

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4. Sketch the magnetic field patterns for the Magnetization
arrangement below.
 Magnetization is the process of making a magnet from
magnetic material. During this process, dipoles get
aligned. In a partially magnetized material most but not
all domains are aligned in one direction.

 When a material is fully magnetized all the domains are

aligned in one direction. At this state the material is said
to be magnetically saturated.

 There are four common methods of magnetization; these

are:

1. Induction

2. Stroking

3. Hammering in north-south direction

4. Electrical method using direct current.

1. Electrical method

 Direct current is used.

 The magnetic material to be magnetized is placed inside

the solenoid connected in series with the battery. The
switch is closed and current is passed through the
solenoid for some time.

 The polarities of the magnet depend on the direction of

The Domain Theory of Magnetism the electric current.

 Magnets consist of small magnetic groups referred to as  The poles of the magnet can be identified using the
magnetic domains. Domains have a common magnetic right hand grip rule for current carrying coil which
axis. Domains comprise smaller sub – atomic magnets states that: If a coil carrying a current is grasped
(molecular magnets) called dipoles. The dipoles in a in the right hand such that the fingers point in the
particular domain point towards a common direction. direction of current in the coil, then the thumb
points in the direction of North Pole.

Notes:

I. Allowing the current to flow for a long time does not

increase the extent of magnetic saturation. It only

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causes overheating of the solenoid which adversely
affects magnetism.

II. A solenoid is a coil with many turns of insulated

copper wire.

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Exercise

1. In an experiment to magnetized two substance X

and Y using current two curves wave obtained as
shown below.

Explain the difference between X and Y

2. The graph in the figure below show the relationship 5. Stroking method
between the attractive force of an electromagnetic
and the magnetizing current  In this method a magnetic material bar is repeatedly
stroked using one end of a strong magnet. Stroking aligns
domains and therefore the magnetic material becomes a
magnet. There are two types of stoking:

a) Single stroke method

 In this method the magnetic material is stroked with one

pole of the magnet from one end to another, lifting it
away as shown. The stroking is repeated several times
while keeping the inclination of the magnet the same.
Explain the shape of the curve at point AB using the
domain theory.

3. Hammering (mechanical method)

 This method makes the use of the earth’s magnetic field.

A steel bar to be magnetized is placed in the north-south
position and the upper end is hammered. The end
pointing northward becomes a north pole and the one
pointing southward the South Pole.

 The end of the magnetic material bar where the magnet

finishes stroking acquires an opposite polarity to that of
the stroking magnet.

Disadvantages of single stroke method

 It produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end

of the magnetized material than the other.

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 N/B This disadvantage can be avoided by use of
double stroke method.

4. Induction

 In this method, a magnet induces magnetism in a

magnetic material in contact with it. The end of the
material in contact with the magnet attains a polarity
opposite to the pole of the magnet.

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b) Double stroke method Demagnetization can be hastened by any of the following
methods;
 In this method, the magnetic material bar is stroked from
the centre repeatedly in opposite directions, using opposite  Heating
polarities of two bar magnets as shown in (a) below or like
poles as in (b) below.  Hammering in east-west position

 Dropping on a hard surface

 Electrical method using alternating current.

1. Hammering

 Hammering a magnet placed in the east- west

direction or dropping it evidently on the hard surface
floor several times makes it lose most of the magnetism.

2. Heating

 Heating a magnet until red hot and cooling it suddenly

when resting in the east- west direction makes it lose its
magnetism.

3. Electrical method

 Placing a magnet in a solenoid placed in east west

direction and passing an alternating current demagnetizes
it. This is because alternating current reverses many times
per second, disorienting the magnetic dipoles.
Exercise

With the aid of a diagram explain how you would

magnetized a steel bar so as to obtain a south pole at
marked end of the bar by

a. Using a permanent magnet

b. Using an electric current

Hard and soft magnetic
Which of the above method produce stranger
material Soft magnetic material
magnet? Give a reason.
 These are those magnetic materials magnetized easily but
do not retain their magnetism for long. Examples: iron,
Demagnetization alloy of iron and nickel.

 This is the process by which a magnet losses magnetism. Applications of soft magnetic materials
In this process domains reverse their direction and get
1. Making electromagnets
misaligned (disoriented)

 A magnet can undergo self-demagnetization if poorly

stored or the process can be influenced externally by

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giving the dipoles enough energy to overcome the forces 2. Making transformer cores
holding them in a particular direction.
3. Used for magnetic shielding

Hard magnetic materials

 These are magnetic materials that are difficult to

magnetize but once magnetized they retain their
magnetism for a long time. Example – steel.

Application of hard magnetic materials: Used in making

permanent magnets

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Storing magnets 6. State the polarities of ends X and Y.

 Bar magnets are stored in pairs with soft iron keepers 7. With the aid of a diagram explain how bar
placed across their ends to prevent self- demagnetization. magnets are stored so as to minimize self
Unlike poles of the magnets are placed close to each demagnetization
other.
8. Describe a simple experiment to show the
existence of magnetic poles

9. Name two properties of a magnet

10. What are ferromagnetic materials?

11.Using the domain theory of magnetism, explain why

a) The stray of a magnet cannot be

measured beyond a certain point.
 The magnets magnetize soft iron keepers through
induction. The aligned dipoles form a closed loop or chain b) The temperature increase weaker or destroy
round the magnets and the keepers, with no free poles. the magnetism of a magnet.

Uses of magnets 12.The graphs below are for two magnetic materials.

1. Used in hospitals for removing pieces of iron from the

eyes of patients.

2. Used to industries as stirrers, lifting iron scrap metals.

3. Weather stations for resetting six’s minimum and

maximum thermometer.

4. Navigation for showing direction as in compass needles

5. Magnetic tapes used in audio and video recorders.

a) Which material is easier to magnetize?

b) Which material forms a stronger magnet?

c) State one application of each.

Revision Questions

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14.Why is soft iron used as magnet keeper? 13. Two similar razor blades are placed one on a wooden
block and the other on a soft iron block as
15.Describe how you would shield a magnetic material shown
from a magnetic field. State one application of
magnetic shielding

16.Use the domain theory to explain a difference

between magnetic and non- magnetic materials.

17.A coil of insulated wire is wound around a u-

shaped soft iron care XY and connected to a below.
battery as shown in the figure below.
It was observed that the razor blade on the wooden
block was attracted to the magnet while the
other on the soft iron was not. Explain.

Chapter Two MEASUREMENT II

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be able to: 1. Measurement of length using vernier calipers and
micrometer screw gauge
a) Measure length using vernier calipers and micrometer
screw gauge 2. Decimal places, significant figures and standard form

b) Express quantities in correct number of decimal 3. Estimation of the diameter of the molecule of oil (relate to
places and correct number of significant figures. the size of the HIV virus, mention effects of oil spills on
health and environment.)
c) Express measurements in standard form
4. Problems in measurements.
d) Estimate the diameter of a molecule of oil

e) Solve numerical problems in measurement.

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Using Vernier Calipers

Vernier Calipers 1. Place the object whose diameter (length) is to measured

between the outside jaws.

2. Close the jaws till they just grip the object.

3. Record the reading of the main scale, opposite and to the

left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.

4. Read the vernier scale mark that coincides exactly with a

main scale mark and multiply it with the least count
(accuracy) of the Vernier calipers. This is the Vernier
scale reading.

5. The sum of the vernier scale reading and the main scale
reading gives the diameter (length) of the object.

 The Vernier calipers has two scales. The main scale is Vernier calipers reading = vernier scale
contained on the steel frame and is graduated in reading
centimeters but also has millimeters divisions. The +main scale reading
Vernier scale is contained on the sliding jaw and has 10
Example
equal divisions.

 The length of Vernier scale is 0.9cm implying that each

division of the vernier scale is 0.09cm.

 The difference between the main scale division and the

Vernier scale division is called the least count. This is
the accuracy of the Vernier calipers i.e.(0.9-0.09)cm
= 0.01cm

 Vernier calipers has inside jaws used to measure

internal diameters and outside jaws used to measure
external diameters.

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Exercise (ii) Negative Error

1. Describe how you would measure the internal  Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale is to the
diameter of 100cm3 beaker using vernier right of the zero mark of the vernier scale
calipers.
Example
2. Write down the vernier calipers reading
in diagram (a) (b) and (c) showed below.

Correction of the Negative Error

 The negative error is corrected by adding zero error to the

reading obtained.

Exercise

The figure below shows a vernier calipers

Zero Error of the Vernier Calipers State the correct reading of scale if the instrument has a
zero error of – 0.02cm.
 Vernier calipers is said to have a zero error if the zero
marks of the main scale and vernier scale do not coincide
when the jaws of the calipers are closed without an object.
Micrometer Screw Gauge
 There are two types of errors:
 It is used to measure very small lengths such as the
diameter of a thin wire.

(i) Positive Error

 Occurs when the zero mark of the main scale is to the left
of the zero mark of the vernier scale.

Example

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Correction of the Positive Error

 The positive error is corrected by subtracting the zero

error from the reading obtained.

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 The micrometer screw gauge consist of a thimble which
carries a circular rotating scale known as thimble
scale and a spindle which moves forward and
backwards when the thimble is rotated.

 The sleeve has a linear scale in millimeters and half

millimeter called sleeve scale and the thimble has a
circular scale of 50 or 100 equal divisions.

 The ratchet at the end of the thimble prevents the user

from exerting more pressure on an object when the
micrometer screw gauge is in use.

 The distance moved by the spindle in one complete

rotation of the thimble is called the pitch of the
micrometer. A spindle moves forward or backwards by
0.5mm per a complete rotation of the thimble with 50
divisions.

 Therefore each division of thimble scale represents a

spindle travel of The zero error of the micrometer screw gauge
0.5mm
= 0.01mm 50  It occurs if the zero mark of the thimble scale does not
coincide with the horizontal (centre) line of the sleeve
 This means that if the thimble rotates through one scale when the micrometer is closed without an object.
division, the spindle moves forward or forward by
0.01mm. This is the least count (accuracy) of the Positive error of micrometer screw gauge
micrometer screw gauge.
 Occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is below
 Least count of the screw gauge is defined as the the horizontal line.
distance moved by the spindle when the thimble rotates
through one division. Example

Using a micrometer screw gauge

1. Place the object whose diameter/length is to be measured

between the anvil and the spindle.

2. Close the micrometer using ratchet until the object is held

gently between the anvil and the spindle. Note that the  The positive error is corrected by subtraction of the error
ratchet should slip only once when the grip is firm enough from the reading given by the micrometer screw gauge.
to give accurate reading.
Negative error
3. Read the sleeve scale and record it as:
 It occurs when the zero mark of the thimble scale is above
Sleeve scale reading =---------------mm the horizontal line of the sleeve scale.
E.g. consider the screw gauge below: Example

4. Read the thimble scale and multiply it by the least count of

the screw gauge (0.01mm) and record it as:

Thimble scale reading= ……x 0.01=......mm

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5. Micrometer reading = sleeve scale reading + thimble scale
reading

Examples

 The negative error is corrected by adding the error to

the reading obtained by the screw gauge

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Significant Figures
Exercise
 Significant figures refer to the number of digits used to
Express the following in cm giving the answers in
specify the accuracy of a value.
standard form
Note:
a) 0.1mm
1. The digits 1-9 are all significant when they appear in a
b) 125 mm
number.
c) 3.8m
2. The first digit from the left of a number is the first
significant figures d) 0.015m
3. The number of significant figures is determined by e) 7.8
counting the number of digits from the first significant
figure on the left. km Decimal
4. Zero may be significant or not depending on the position places
of the digit
 Refer to number of digits to the right of the decimal point
5. If zero occurs between non- zero digits it is significant and this determines the accuracy of the number
e.g. 1004(4sf), 15607(5sf), 180.45(5sf) e.g. 6.0345 (4d.p)

6. When zero occurs at the left end of a number it is not Exercise

significant e.g. 0.00546(3sf), 0.0002(1sf)
Find the volume of a cube whose side is 2.22 cm. Express
7. If the zero occurs at the right hand end of an integer it your answer correct to 3 d.p
may or may not be significant. E.g. 60000.It can be
correct to 1 significant figure therefore the zeros are not Standard Prefixes Used With SI Units
significant. If all the zeros are counted (ended) then it will
be correct to 6 significant figures.  The table below shows multiples and sub- multiples used
with SI units, their prefixes and symbol for the prefixes.
8. If the zero occurs at the right hand end after the decimal
point, it is always significant e.g. 2.000(4sf), 3.0(2sf)

Exercise

Write down the number of significant figures in each

of the following

a) 40000

b) 609

c) 0.000675

d) 5237.8

e) 0.0000600

f) 0.002304

Standard Form

 This is a way of writing a number especially a very

Sub- prefix Symbol
multiple/
multiple for prefix

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-1 deci a i dl . c o m 21
10
-2 centi c
10
-3 milli m
10
-6 micro µ
10
-9 nano n
10
-12 pico p
10
-15 femto f
-18
10 1 atto a
10 deca da
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
10
12 tera T
10
15 peta P
10
18 exa E

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large or very small number in which only one integer
appears before the decimal point.

 A positive number is said to be in standard form when

written as AX10n, where A is such that 1≤A <10 and
the index n is an integer e.g.3567= 3.567x 103

 If the number lies between zero and 1 then the index n

becomes a negative e.g.0.0003567=3.567x10-4

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The Oil Drop Experiment Possible Sources of Error in the Experiment

 This is an experiment used in the estimation of diameter/ a) Error in measuring the diameter ( or volume) of oil
size /thickness of a molecule. drop

 In this experiment, a tray is filled with water to the brim, b) Error in measuring diameter of oil patch
and lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on the water
surface. Exercise

 An oil drop is carefully placed at the centre of the tray and 1. In an experiment to estimate the size of an oil
allowed to spread on the surface of water until it is one molecule, the diameter of the patch was
molecule thick. This forms a patch whose diameter is measured to be 200mm for an oil drop of radius
measured 0.25mm. Determine the diameter of the molecule
of the oil

2. In an experiment to estimate the diameter of oil

molecule 100 drops of oil are released from burette
and level of oil in burette changes from 0.5cm3
to
20.5 cm3. One of the drops is placed on water and
spreads over a circular patch of diameter 20 cm.

a. Determine:

I. The volume of the oil drop

II. The area of the patch covered by the oil

III. The diameter of the oil molecule

b. State:

 Thickness of oil molecule is estimated as d i. Assumptions made in this experiment

volume of oil drop = volume of oil patch ii. Two possible sources of errors in
this experiment

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4 d
πr3 = π( )2×thickness, t, of oil patch (or molecule) Revision Questions
3 2
1. What are the zero errors of the micrometer screw
Functions of lycopodium powder gauges shown in the figures below?(the
micrometers are closed).if the micrometers were
1. It breaks surface tension used to measure the diameter of a wire whose
diameter is 1.00 mm, what would be the
2. it clearly shows the extent of spread of the oil drop
reading on each?
Function of beams:

 Used to estimate diameter of the spread oil patch

Assumptions made in oil drop experiment

a) The oil drop is perfectly spherical

b) The oil patch is perfectly cylindrical

c) The oil patch is one molecule thick.

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2. Compare and contrast the scales of two
micrometer screw gauges with a pitch of
0.5mm and 1.0mm.

3. What are the two limitations of the

micrometer screw gauge?

4. List down the advantages and disadvantages

of the micrometer screw gauge over the
vernier calipers

5. Sketch a micrometer screw gauge scale reading:

a) O.23 mm

b) 5.05 mm

6. (a)What are the zero errors of the vernier

calipers in figures (a) and (b) below?

(b) If the correct diameter of an object is 4.01 cm, what

would be the readings of both calipers for this
diameter?

( c) The calipers in figure (a) was used to measure the

diameter of a cylindrical object and recorded 4.55 cm
while the one in figure (b) was used to measure the
diameter of a sphere and recorded 5.05cm. Calculate
correct volumes of these objects in m3. (Take π =
3.142)

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Chapter Three TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE

Moment of a Force Moment of a force = force ×perpendicular distance
∴ moment of force about pivot = 20N×0.4 m
 Basically, moment of a force refers to the turning effect of
the force. = 8 Nm
 It is defined as the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance between the point of support
(pivot or fulcrum) and the line of action of the force. The Principle of Moments (the Law of the Lever)

 Consider a meter rule balanced (at equilibrium) on a pivot

at its centre by weights W 1, W2, W3 and W4 as shown
below.

Moment of a force = force×perpendicular distance

 SI unit of moment of a force is the newton meter (Nm)

Factors Affecting Moment of a Force

1. Amount of force – moment of force is directly

proportional to the amount of force applied.  The forces W1 and W2tend to make the rule turn in the
anticlockwise direction about the pivot. Therefore, the
2. Perpendicular distance between line of action of force and moments due to these weights are referred to as an
point of support – moment is directly proportional the anticlockwise moments.
distance 900.
 Similarly, the forces W3 and W4 tend to make the rule turn
Examples of Activities in Which Force Produces a in a clockwise direction and therefore, their moments
Turning Effect about the pivot are clockwise moments.
1. Opening and closing a door Sum of clockwise moment =W3d3 + W4d4
2. Closing a lid of a container e.g.( geometrical instrument Sum of anticlockwise moment =W1d1 +
box)
W2d2
3. A pair of scissors or garden shears in use
At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment =
4. Children playing on “ see saw” Sum of anticlockwise moment
5. A wheelbarrow being used to lift heavy loads W3d3 + W4d4 = W1d1 + W2d2
6. A screwdriver being used to tighten or loosen a screw.  This can be summarized by the principle of moments
which states “for a system in equilibrium the sum of
7. Beam balance in use.
clockwise moments about a point must be equal
Examples to the sum of anti clockwise moments about the
same point”.
Find the moment of the force about the pivot in the
figures below N/B: A body is said to be at equilibrium when it is
balanced under the action of a number of forces.

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Examples Exercise

1. State the law of the lever ( as above) A half meter rule is suspended vertically from a pivot
at the 0 cm mark. It is maintained in the vertical
2. A uniform meter rule pivoted at its centre is position by four horizontal forces acting in the
balanced by a force of 4.8N at 20cm mark and some directions shown in the figure below
other two forces, F and 2.0N on the 66cm and 90cm
marks respectively. Calculate the force F.

The 10.0 N force acts through the 15 cm mark, 4.0 N

force through the 20 cm mark and 5.0 N force through
the 40 cm mark. Calculate F which acts through the
30 cm mark.
At equilibrium (balance),
Parallel forces
Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise
moment  Consider a uniform rod below balanced by the forces F1,
F2, F3, F4, F5 and R which is the normal reaction on
F ×0.16 + 2.0×0.40 = 4.8×0.30 pivot.
0.16F + 0.80 = 1.44

0.16F = 0.64

0.64
F = 0.16

F = 4.0 N

3. A boy of mass 40kg sits at a point 2.0m from the

pivot of a seen saw. Find the weight of a girl who  The forces F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and R are parallel.
can balance the see-saw by sitting at a distance of
3.2m from the pivot. (Take g  For parallel forces:
=10nkg) solution a) The sum of forces acting on one side of the system is
equal to the sum of forces acting on opposite
direction i.e. the algebraic sum of parallel forces is
zero.

b) The sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of

anticlockwise moments i.e. the algebraic sum of the
moments of parallel forces is zero.

Exercise

At equilibrium (balance), A uniform metal rod of length 80cm and mass 3.2kg
is supported horizontally by two vertical spring’s
balances C

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Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise and D balance C is also from one end while balance D is
moment 30cm from the other end. Find the reading on each
Wg×3.2m = (40kg×10kgN)×2.0m balance.

3.2Wg = 800

800
Wg = 3.2

wg = 250 N

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Anti – parallel forces (Couples) III. Forces applied on the steering wheel of a car when
going round a bend
 Anti – parallel forces or a couple refers to equal, parallel
but opposite forces. IV. Forces applied on bicycle handle

 The total moment of anti-parallel forces is the product of

one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between
the forces.

Revision Exercise
Example
1. Explain why the handle of a door is placed as far as
Two vertical equal and opposite forces act on a possible from the hinges.
meter rule at 20 cm and 90 cm marks respectively. If
each of the forces has a magnitude of 4.0 N, calculate 2. Explain why it is easier to loosen a tight nut using a
their moment on the meter rule about the 40 cm mark. spanner with a long handle than the one with a short
handle.
solution
3. The figure below shows a uniform bar in
Total moment equilibrium under the influence of two forces
= one of the force, F X perpendicular distance between the forces, d

= 4.0N×(0.9-0.2)m

= 4.0 N ×0.7

= 2.8 Nm

Examples of couples

I. Forces applied on a wheel spanner when tightening or

loosening a nut

II. Forces applied when opening a water tap

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Chapter Four EQUILIBRIUM AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Centre of Gravity 3. For circular plate construct diameters. The point of
intersection, which is the centre of the circle, is the centre
 Centre of gravity (COG) of a body is the point of of gravity.
application of the resultant force due to earth’s
attraction. It is the point where the whole weight of the
body appears to act from. The resultant force is the weight
(W = mg) of the body.

Centre of Gravity of Regular Shapes

 The centre of gravity of a uniform body (body with

weight evenly distributed) lies at the body’s geometrical
centre. For example, a uniform meter rule balances at
the 50 cm mark when suspended. Examples

1. A uniform meter rule is balanced at 20cm mark

when a load of 1.2N is hung at the zero mark.

a) Draw a diagram of meter rule showing all

the forces acting on it.

 The centre of gravity of regular shapes can also be

determined by construction e.g.

1. For square and rectangular plates, diagonals are b) Calculate the weight and mass of the meter
constructed. The point of intersection is the centre of rule
gravity.

solution

At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment

= Sum of anticlockwise moment

W×0.3 m = 1.2 N×0.2 m

2. For triangular plate, perpendicular bisectors of the sides 0.3 W = 0.24
are constructed. The point of intersection is the centre of
∴W=
gravity. 0.24
= 0.8 N 0.3

c) Determine the reaction on the pivot.

solution

total up ward forces = total downwaed forces

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R = 1.2 + W

R = 1.2 + 0.8

R = 2.0 N

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2. The diagram below shows a metal plate 3m long, 1m 4. The figure below shows a diagram, of mass
wide and negligible thickness. A horizontal force of 150kg and radius 0.5m being pulled by horizontal
100N applied at point D just makes the plate tilt. force F against a step 0.1 m high. What initial
Calculate the weight of the plate. force, F, is just sufficient to turn the drawn so that
it rises over the step. If the diagram below shows
spherical balls placed at different positions on a
surface.

Solution
Equilibrium States
At equilibrium (balance), Sum of clockwise moment
= Sum of anticlockwise moment  State of equilibrium refers to state of balance of a
body. There are three states of equilibrium:
100 N×3 m = W×0.5 m

300 = 0.5 W

∴W=
1. Stable equilibrium
300
= 600 N
0.5  A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if it returns to
the original position after being displaced slightly. The
Exercise funnel does not topple over since the line of action of
weight still falls inside the base of the funnel.
1. A uniform half- meter rule is pivoted at the 10cm
mark. Find the position of a 2.0 N weight that will
balance the rule horizontally if the weight of
the rule is 0.4 N.

2. The figure below shows a uniform plank of length

2. Unstable equilibrium.
6.0m acted upon by the forces shown. If the plank
has a weight of 300 N, draw the diagram  A body is in unstable equilibrium if on being displaced
showing all the forces acting on the plank. slightly, it does not return to its original positions but
Calculate the tension T in the string and the occupies a new position. The funnel below topples over
reaction at the pivot. because the line of action of weight falls outside the
base of the funnel.

3. Neutral equilibrium

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 A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if on being
displaced it occupies a new position which is similar to the
original position.

3. Define the centre of gravity of a body

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Conditions for Equilibrium Exercise

1. The sum of forces on the body in one direction is equal to 1. State the conditions of equilibrium for a
the sum of forces acting on the body in the opposite body acted upon by a number of parallel
direction forces.

2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any point is 2. Explain why:
equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the
same point. a) It is not safe for a double Decker bus to
carry standing passengers on the upper
Factors Affecting the Stability of a Body deck.

1. The position of COG of the body - the lower the b) Bus body- builders build luggage
position of the centre of gravity the more stable a body is. compartments under the seats rather than
on roof racks.
2. Base area of the body- a body is more stable when the
base is wide. A narrow base makes the body to be less c)Laboratory stands are made with a wide
stable. heavy base.

3. When is an object said to be in equilibrium?

Examples of Application of Stability 4. What type of equilibrium has:

1. Containers for holding liquids such as conical flask in the I. A marble at the bottom of a watch
laboratory have broad base to improve their stability. glass?

2. Racing cars (e.g. formula one car) have wider wheels and II. A tight rope walker?
lower positions of center of gravity than ordinary cars.
III. A cylinder sitting on its base?
3. Most buses carry their cargo in space below the passenger
level instead of the roof rack in order to keep the centre of IV. A sphere on a level table top?
gravity positions low.
V. A bird perched on a thin
4. A hydrometer is able to stay upright in a liquid because it horizontal branch of a tree?
is weighted at its base and therefore its centre of gravity is
at the base. 5. State:

5. A Bunsen burner has a wide heavy base to increase I. Two ways in which the stability of a body can
stability be increased.

6. A person carrying a bucket of water in one hand has to II. Two practical application of stability.
lean his body to the other side to adjust the position his
centre of gravity. 6. Explain how a cyclist maintains the stability of
a moving bicycle.
7. Chairs, stools, tripod 73 stands, tables etc are provided
with three or more legs. The legs are often made slightly 7. Describe the state of equilibrium of the ball
inclined outwards to improve stability. in each position

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Chapter Five SOUND

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Sound: nature and sources (experimental treatment
required)
a) Perform and describe simple experiments to show that
sound is produced by vibrating bodies 2. Propagation of a sound

b) Perform and describe an experiment to show that 3. Compressions and rarefaction

sound requires a material medium for a propagation.
4. Speed of a sound by echo sound
c) Explain the nature of sound waves.
5. Factors affecting the speed of a sound
d) Determine the speed of sound in air by the echo
method. 6. Problems on velocity of a sound

e) State the factors affecting the speed of sound.

f) Solve numerical problems involving velocity of sound.

Definition of Sound

 Sound is a form of energy that originates from vibrating

objects. It is a longitudinal mechanical wave.

Some Sources of Sound

1. Vibrating wooden strip

2. Vibrating wire e.g. guitar wire being pluck.

3. Vibrating drum

4. Tuning fork- the prongs of tuning fork are made to Exercise

vibrate by striking them against a hard surface.
1. The figure below shows a vibrating fork. The time
5. Vibrating air columns e.g. blowing air a cross the mouth interval for the prong to go from A to B is 0.005 s.
of a test- tube. Find:
6. Air siren- it is a form of disk with a ring of equally spaced a) The frequency of the fork
holes which are equidistant from the centre. It is rotated
at a constant rate as air is blown through the holes. b) The wavelength of the vibrations, if the
velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s.
7. Cog-wheel and card

8. Voice box (larynx)

Propagation of Sound

Energy

 Sound wave is propagated in form of compressions

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(areas of high pressure) and rarefactions (areas of low
pressure) through propagating medium. Sound requires a
material medium for propagation.

2. The diagram below shows sound waves passing 2. Close the switch and observe what happens.
through air. Study it and answer the questions that
follow. Observation: It is observed that the bell begins to ring and the
sound is heard outside.

3. Gradually pump out some air and note the effect this has
on sound reaching you.

Observation: The intensity of sound decreases gradually.

4. Pump as much air out of the jar as possible and listen to

a. Label the following: the sound produced.

i. Compression Observation: Sound is found to have almost disappeared

though the hammer can be seen vibrating
ii. Rarefaction
Conclusion
iii. wavelength
The above observations show that the sound cannot travel
b. If the wave front takes 0.1 s to travel from A to through a vacuum. It needs a material medium for
B, find: propagation.

i. The frequency Factors Affecting Velocity of Sound In Air

ii. The wavelength, if velocity of sound in a) Temperature of the air - sound travels faster in
air is 330 m/s. hot air than in cold air.

Experiment b) Humidity of the air - the velocity of sound on air

increases with humidity
Aim:

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To show that sound requires a material medium to travel. (I.e. c) Direction of wind -wind blowing in the same direction
sound does not travel in vacuum) as sound increases the velocity of the latter.

Apparatus Sound Transmission in Solids, Liquids and Gases

Electric bell  Sound travels fastest in solids, followed by liquids and

then gases.
Switch
 Speed of sound in materials varies from solid to solid,
Bell glass- jar liquid to liquid and gas to gas depending on the density of
the material. Denser material transmits sound faster.
Vacuum pump
Reflection Property of Sound Waves
Wires
 Reflected sound is called echo. Sound is reflected when it
Cells falls on hard surfaces.
Glass plate  Reflections of sound waves also obey the laws of
reflection:
Procedure
i. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.
reflection at point of incidence

ii. The incident sound, the reflected sound and

the normal lie on the same plane.

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Reverberation m
∴ 2x = 330 ×0.7s
 Reverberation refers to the effect in which s
original sound seems prolonged due to overlap 330×0.7
with the echo
sound x= = 115.5 m
. It occurs in some halls, sound waves are 2
reflected from walls, floor and ceiling and since the
echo time is short; the echo overlaps with the original m
(
Also, 2(d - x) = 330 × 0.7+0.2 s
sound. s )
297
 To reduce reverberation in places like broadcasting d= +x
studios and concert halls, walls are made using 2
absorbent materials like cotton wool and foam rubber.
d = 148.5 + 115.5 = 264 m (this is the width of the cliff)
Applications of Reflection of Sound
2. A time keeper in 100m race stands at the finishing
a) Determination of Speed of Sound point. He starts his watch the moment he hears the
sound of a gun. What error does he make in the
 In this case, sound is produced in front of an obstacle timing of the race? (Speed of sound in air is 330ms-1)
whose distance away is known. The time for the sound to
Solution
reach the obstacle and back to the source (i.e. time for
echo to be heard) is measured using a stop watch. The error is equal to the time taken for the sound from the
gun to reach the time keeper, i.e. time taken for sound to
travel 100m at the speed of 330ms-1 the sound takes:
100m
T= = 0.303 seconds
330ms-1

=============================================

b) Determination of Distances by Producing Sound of a

Known Speed (pulse-echo technique)
distancetravelled, 2d 2d
Speedofsound = timetaken , t = t  Pulse-echo technique involves measuring distances by
producing sound of known speed and measuring time
Example taken to receive an echo.

1. A man standing in a valley between two cliffs strikes  Ultrasound (sound of frequency of over 20 KHz) is
a gong. He hears an echo from one cliff 0.7s later used in pulse-echo technique because it penetrates
and from the other 0.2 s after the first. Determine deepest and can be reflected easily by tiny grains.
the width of the valley. (Speed of sound in air,
v=330ms-1) Exercise

Solution A fishing boat uses ultra- sound of frequency 6.0x10 4 Hz

to detect fish directly below. Two echoes of the
ultrasound are received, one after 0.09s coming from the
shoal of fish and other after 0.12s coming from the sea
bed. If the sea bed is 84m below the ultrasound
transceiver, calculate:

i. The speed of ultrasound waves in water

ii. The wavelength of the ultrasound waves in water

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letditancefromnearestcliffbexand iii. The depth of the shoal of fish below the boat

thatbetweenthetwocliffsd distance =

speedofsound ×time

Applications of Pulse- Echo Technique 5. In an experiment to determine speed of sound in air,

a drum at a point 150m from a vertical wall was
Used: struck at varying frequency while listening to the
echo. The echo coincides with the sound from the
a) In the ship to determine the depth of the sea. drum at a time when to successive strikes were
made within a time of 18.5s.
b) In under water exploration of gas and oil.
i. Determine the time taken for an echo to
c) In fishing boats with pulse echo equipment to locate be heard
shoals of fish.
ii. Determine the speed of sound in air at
d) In special types of spectacles used by the blind the place
people to tell how far objects are ahead of them.
iii. What difference would you expect if the
e) By bats to detect the presence of obstacles in their flight experiment was repeated on a colder day?
path.
6. A boy strikes a railway line with a hammer. A
Revision Exercise railway walker 600m a way hears two sounds, one
from the railway line and the other from air. If the
1. State how the pitch of sound wave is affected by
time interval between the two sounds is 1.65 s and
frequency
the speed of sound in air is 340ms -1, determine the
2. The following diagram shows a set up that was speed of sound in the railway line.
used to demonstrate that sound requires a
material medium for transmission.

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i. State what happens to the sound from the

bell as air continues to be drawn from the jar

ii. What happens to the sound if some air is

allowed back into the jar

iii. Give possible reasons why it is not possible to

reduce sound completely in this experiment

3. A girl standing some distance away from the cliff

blows a whistle and hears an echo 1.10s later. If the
speed of a sound in air is 350ms-1, determine how for
the girl is from the foot of the cliff.

4. A loudspeaker placed between two walls but nearer

to wall A than wall B is sending out constant sound
waves. Determine how far the loudspeaker is
from wall B if it is 100m from wall A and the time
between the two echoes received is 0.2 seconds.
(Speed of sound in air= 340ms-1)

Chapter Six HOOKE’S LAW

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: 1. Hooke’s law

a) State and verify experimentally Hooke’s law 2. Spring constant

b) Determine the spring constant 3. Spring balance

c) Construct and calibrate a spring balance 4. Problems on Hooke’s law

d) Solve numerical problems involving Hooke’s law

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Introduction 5. Elasticity

 The knowledge of stretching materials when forces are  This is the ability of a material to recover its original
applied is important particularly in the construction shape and size after the force causing deformation is
industry. It helps engineers to determine the strength of removed. The materials with this ability are called elastic
the materials to be used for specific work. This topic deals e.g. rubber bands, spring, and some wires.
with study of how materials behave when stretched and
the relationship between the extent of stretching and  A material which does not recover its shape but is
stretching force. The pioneer of the topic is the physicist deformed permanently is called plastic e.g. plasticine.
Robert Hooke.

Characteristics of Materials
Hooke’s Law
1. Strength
 Hooke’s law relates the stretching force and extension
 It is the ability of a material to resist breakage when under produced.
stretching, compressing or shearing force. A strong
material is one which can withstand a large force without It states that “for a helical spring or any other elastic
breaking. material, extension is directly proportional to the
stretching force, provided elastic limit is not exceeded”
2. Stiffness
i.e.F ∝ e; F = ke,
 Refers to the resistance a material offers to forces which Where k is the constant of
tend to change its shape or size or both. Stiff materials are
not flexible and resist bending. proportionalitycalledspringconstant.

3. Ductility  Sl unit of spring constant is the newton per meter

(N/m).
 This is the quality of a material which leads to permanent
change of shape and size. Ductile materials elongate  Spring constant is defined as the measure of stiffness
considerably when under stretching forces and undergo of a spring.
plastic determination until they break e.g. lead, copper,
plasticine.

4. Brittleness  Graphically, Hooke’s law can be expressed as below.

 This is the quality of a material which leads to breakage

just after elastic limit is exceeded. Brittle materials do not
undergo extension and break without warning on
stretching. E.g. blackboard chalk, bricks, cast iron, glass,
and dry biscuits.

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Solution

F mg
k=e = e

(600×10-3×10)N -1

k= -2 = 500Nm
1.2×10 m

2. The figure below shows a spring when unloaded,

when supporting a mass of 80g and when
supporting a stone. Study the diagrams and use them
to determine the mass of the stone.

 The graph of stretching force against extension, for

material that obeys Hooke’s law, is a straight line through
the origin. The gradient (slope) of such a graph gives the
spring constant of the spring used.
changeinF
Gradient(slope) = = springconstant
changeine
Solution
ΔF
S= =k
Δe F mg
k= e = e
 If the stretching force exceeds a certain value,
permanent stretching occurs. (80×10-3×10)N -1
k= = 16Nm
(10-5)×10-2m
 The point beyond which the elastic material does not obey
Hooke’s law is called elastic limit. F = Wstone = ke

 A point beyond which a material loses its elasticity is N

W = 16 ×3×10-2 = 0.48N
called yield point. stone m
 Along OE the spring (or elastic material) is said do W 0.48N
undergo elastic deformation. m = g = 10Nkg-1

 Along EA the spring is said to undergo plastic = 0.048kg (thisisthemassofthestone)

deformation
3. A spiral spring produces an extension of 6mm when
Factors Affecting Spring a force of 0.3N is applied to it. Calculate the spring
Constant constant for a system when two such springs are
arranged in:
a) Type of material making the wire
a) Series
b) Length of the spring

c) The number of terms per unit length of the spring

d) The diameter (thickness) of the spring

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e) The thickness of the wire Examples

1. A spring stretches by 1.2 cm when a 600g mass is

suspended on it. What is its spring constant?

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a. Plot a graph of total length (y-axis)
against weight

Totalextension = 2x6x10-3m = 1.2x10-2m

Totalforce = 0.3N

F = ke (fromHooke’slaw)
F 0.3
K = = = 25Nm-1
s
e 1.2x10 -2

b) Parallel

b. Use the graph to determine

i. The length of the spring

The length of the spring is that when force

Since the two springs will share the weight, extension of acting on it is zero. From the graph it is 7.1x10-2
1 m
the system is x6mm = 3mm
2 ii. The spring constant, k.
Spring constant of the system, kP is spring 1
constant, k =
F 0.3N
kp= = = 100Nm-1 slope,S
(8.8-7.8)×10-2m -1
e 0.003m S= = 0.009091mN
(1.56-0.55)N
4. The data below represents the total length of a spring
1
as the load suspended on it is increased spring constant, k = = 110.0 Nm-1
0.009091mN-1
Weight, 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Compressing a spring
W (N)
 Compression refers to change in length that occurs when
Total 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 a spring is squeezed from its two ends. A sketch of length
length, against compression for a spring which obeys Hooke’s
law is as below.
L (x10-2m)
 Beyond the point E, the turns of the spring are virtually
pressing onto one another and further increase in force
achieves no noticeable decrease in length.

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Work Done in Stretching or Compressing a Spring

 The area under force versus extension graph is

represents to work done in stretching the spring.

Exercise

a. The figure below shows a simple apparatus for

studying the behavior of a spring when subjected to
forces of compression.
1
Area under the graph = Fe,
2

where F is the force applied and e the extension attained.

From Hooke's law, F = ke

1 1
Workdone = (ke)e = ke2
2 2
Describe how the apparatus may be used to obtain
Exercise
readings of compression force and corresponding
length of spring. Two springs of negligible weights and of constants k1 =
50Nm-1 and k2 = 100Nm-1 respectively are connected
b. In a similar experiment the following readings were
obtained end to end and suspended from a fixed point.
Determine

i. The total extension when a mass of 2.0kg is

hung from the one end

ii. The constant of the combination.

iii. Work done in stretching each spring

(elastic potential energy of each)

Plot a graph of:

i. Compression forces versus length of the spring

and from the graph determine the minimum
force that will make the spring coils to just come
into contact.

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ii. Compression forces versus compression of
spring and from the graph determine the
spring constant.

Revision Exercise

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1. State Hooke’s law

2. Define the following terms

a) Elasticity

b) Elastic material

c) Plastic deformation

d) Spring constant

e) Stiffness

f) A stiff material

g) Elastic

material Yield

point

3. A 60g mass is suspended from a spring. When

1.5g wire is added, the spring stretches by
1.2cm.Given that the spring obeys Hooke’s law,
find:

a) The spring constant

b) The total extension of the spring

4. A piece of wire of length 12m is stretched through

2.5cm by a mass of 5kg. Assuming that the wire
obeys Hooke’s law

a) Through what length will a mass of

12.5kg stretch it?

b) What force will stretch it through 4.0cm?

5. The following readings where obtained in an

experiment to verify Hooke’s law using a
spring

a. For each reading calculate:

i. The value of the force applied

ii. The extension in mm

b. Plot a graph of extension against force. Does

the spring obey Hooke’s law?

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c. From the graph determine:

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i. The elastic limit ( mark on graph)

ii. The spring constant

iii. The weight of a bottle of ink hung from

the spring if the reading obtained is 12cm

iv. The extension in mm when a force of 0.3N

is applied

v. The scale reading in cm for a mass of 0.02kg

Chapter Seven MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to: 1. Magnetic field due to a current

a) Perform and describe experiments to determine the 2. Oersted’s experiment

direction of magnetic field round a current carrying
conductor 3. Magnetic field patterns on straight conductors and
solenoids (right hand grip rule)
b) Construct simple electromagnet
4. Simple electromagnets
c) State the factors affecting the strength of an
electromagnet 5. Factors affecting strength of an electromagnet

d) Determine experimentally the direction of force on a 6. Motor effect (Fleming’s right hand rule)
conductor carrying current in a magnetic field
7. Factors affecting force on a current carrying conductor
e) Explain the working of a simple electric motor and in a magnetic field (qualitative treatment only)
electric bell
8. Applications:

 Electric bell

 Simple electric motor

Introduction

 This topic involves the study of magnetic field due to

the flow of electric current in a conductor and the
applications of this effect. The pioneer of this physics
topic is Hans Oersted, a professor of physics.

Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current Flowing Through

a Conductor
 The direction of deflection of the compass needles can
 Consider the diagram below of a set up that that can be be predicted by Ampere’s swimming rule which states
used to investigate the magnetic effect of an electric that “if one imagines swimming along a conductor in
current flowing through a conductor. This is commonly the direction of electric current and facing the
called Oersted’s experiment. A and B are magnetic compass needle, then the north pole of the needle will
compass needles be deflected towards the swimmer’s left hand”

Notes:

1. The deflection of the compass needles is due to the

interaction between the magnetic field due to the electric
current in the conductor and the magnetic field of the
compass needle.

2. When the terminals of the battery are interchanged, the

compass needles deflect in the opposite direction because
the direction of current reverses.

3. The extent of deflection of the compass needles

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 When the switch is closed, it is observed that the compass increases when the amount of electric current flowing
needles deflect towards the directions shown in the through the conductor increases.
diagram below.

Exercise
 Note: The symbol represents current into the
The figure below shows a compass placed under
surface and current out of the surface.
a vertical wire XY

A large current is passed from X to Y. Draw the

position of the magnetic compass needle. Magnetic Field on a Current Carrying Solenoid

 A solenoid refers to a wire wound into a long cylindrical

coil with many connected loops.
Magnetic Field Patterns on a Straight Current
Carrying Conductor

 When a large electric current flows through a wire

passing through a card board on which iron filings is
sprinkled, the filings form a pattern of concentric
circles around the wire as shown below.  Fleming’s right hand grip rule for a current carrying
solenoid is used to predict the direction of magnetic
field pattern inside the solenoid due to the current. It
states that “If a coil carrying electric current is held in
the right hand such that the fingers encircle the loops
while pointing in the direction of current flow, the
thumb points in the direction of the North Pole”

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 This behavior of iron filings show that the magnetic

field around a straight current carrying conductor  Note that a solenoid carrying electric current produces a
forms a pattern of concentric circles and is magnet field pattern like that of a bar magnet; one end
perpendicular to the conductor. behaves North Pole and the other end South Pole.
 The direction of this magnetic field pattern can be Exercise
predicted by Fleming’s right hand grip rule for a
current carrying straight conductor which states that Show the magnetic field pattern inside loop below
“if a current carrying conductor is gripped in the right
hand with the thumb pointing along the wire in the
direction of current, the other fingers will point in the
direction of the magnetic field”.

Simple Electromagnet End B was brought near the iron filings and many of
them were attracted when the switch was closed.
 An electromagnet is made by placing a soft iron core
inside a solenoid carrying an electric current. This is I. Explain why the iron filings got attracted at end of
shown below. the core.

II. Explain what is observed when the switch is

opened.

III. If soft iron was replaced with steel and switch

closed: State what is observed when steel is
brought near iron filings

IV. Mention three differences between soft iron and

steel as illustrated in the above experiment.
 The right hand grip rule for a current carrying V. Explain what happens if steel is replaced
solenoid can as well be used to predict the polarities with copper and dipped in the iron filings.
of the electromagnet.
2. The diagram below shows a wire wound on an open
Factors Affecting the Strength of an Electromagnet pipe at both ends. The wire is then connected to
ad.c supply. A north pole of the magnet is near the
I. The amount (size) of current in the solenoid – the
end of the core B.
strength of an electromagnet is directly proportional

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to the amount of electric current in the solenoid.
Therefore, the large the current the strong the
electromagnet.

II. The number of turns in the solenoid – the strength

of the electromagnet is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the solenoid. Therefore, the more the
number of turns the strong the electromagnet.

III. The length of the solenoid – the strength of the

electromagnet is directly proportional the length of the I. What is observed at the magnet when the
solenoid. Therefore the longer the solenoid the stronger switch is closed?
the electromagnet.
II. Explain the observation in the question above.
IV. The shape of the core -horse - shoe shaped core produces
III. If the terminals of the cells are reversed
a stronger electromagnet than u- shaped core while a u-
state what is observed on the magnets.
shaped core produces a stronger electromagnet than a
straight core. IV. What name of making a magnet is illustrated
in the above arrangement?
Exercise
V. What are the two advantages of this method
1. In the diagram below the soft iron core is
over other methods of magnetization?
placed inside a coil connected to a d.c source.
3. In an experiment to determine the strength of an
electromagnet, the weight of pins that can be
supported by the electromagnet, was recorded
against the number of turns. The current was kept
constant throughout the experiment.

The table below shows the data that was obtained.

I. Plot a graph of weight, W, against number of

turns, n.

II. Use the domain theory to explain the nature of

the graph

III. Sketch on the same axes the curve that will be

obtained using a higher current

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Force on a current carrying conductor (The Motor Exercise
Effect)
Show the resultant magnetic field and direction of
 A conductor carrying current placed in a magnetic field force of the conductor in each of the following.
experiences a force. This is called the motor effect.

 Consider the set up diagram below for a conductor

carrying current in a magnetic field.

 For rectangular coil in a magnetic field, one side

 The magnetic field concentrates at the top of the experiences an upward force and the other side a
conductor than at the bottom thereby creating a region of downward force and the coil is set into a rotation. Below
strong field. The reason for this is that the field due to is an example.
electric current in the conductor and that of the magnets
reinforce each other since they are directed in the same
direction.

 The relatively weak field at the bottom of the conductor is

as result of cancellation between the two fields since they
are directed in opposite directions. The resultant force
therefore acts on the conductor downwards.

 The direction of force on conductor can be predicted by

Fleming’s left hand rule which states that “If the
thumb, first and second fingers are held mutually
at right angles with the first finger pointing the
direction

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of magnetic field, the second finger in the direction
of current, then the thumb points in the direction of
force”

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Force between Parallel Straight Current When a current is passed through the coil in the
Carrying Conductors direction PQRS the coil starts to turn, and eventually
becomes to rest. With the aid of diagrams explain:
a. Parallel Conductors Carrying Current in Same
Direction I. Why the coil begins to turn

II. In which direction it begins to turn

III. Why it comes to rest

IV. The position in which it comes to rest

2. The apparatus shown below may be used to

 The magnetic field between the conductors is weaker due cause rider AB move along the rods C and D
to cancellation than the field from the outer side. The
resultant force on the conductors acts to push them
towards each other.

b. Parallel Conductors Carrying Current In Opposite

Direction

I. When current flows along AB, in what

direction will it roll? Explain.

 The fields between the conductors repel each other since II. What happens to the rider when current is
they are directed in same direction. A force, therefore, increased?
acts on the conductors to pull them apart (outwards)
III. State the rule that can be used to predict the
Factors Affecting Force on a Conductor Carrying direction of force acting on the rider.
Current in a Magnetic Field

1. Magnitude of electric current-force increases with

current Applications of Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current

2. Strength of magnetic field – force increases with 1. Electric bell

strength of the magnetic field

3. Length of the conductor in the field – the longer the

length the stronger the force

4. Angle the conductor makes with the magnetic field –

force increases with the angle. It is maximum when the
conductor is at an angle of 900 with the magnetic field

Exercise

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1. The figure below shows a rectangular coil PQRS of
many turns of wire located in a magnetic field due to
two poles north and south. The coil is free to rotate
on the vertical axis CD.

 The capacitor is used to reduce sparking effect at the

contacts. The circuit is completed at the contact spring
and contact screw.

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Working Mechanism of an Electric Bell  The current is then reversed in the coil and the forces
acting on each side reverse in direction. Side AB is now
 When current is switched on, it flows through the circuit on the right with a downward force while side CD is on
and the soft iron core becomes magnetized. The the left with an upward force. The coil continues to rotate.
magnetized iron core then attracts the sot iron armature,
which has a hammer at its end. On attraction, the
hammer knocks the gong and the bell rings.
3. Simple magnetic relay
 When the soft iron armature is attracted, the contact at
the contact screw is broken and current stops flowing. The  In a magnetic relay, one circuit is used to control another
electromagnet loses its magnetism and releases the soft circuit without any direct electrical connection between
iron armature and this closes the contact again. them.

 This process is repeated and the bell rings continuously as

long as the switch is closed.

2. Electric Motor

 It is a devise which converts electrical energy into

rotational kinetic energy.

 The permanent magnets are curved at the ends to

produce radial magnetic field.
Working Mechanism of Magnetic Relay
Functions of Carbon Brush
 When the switch is closed, current flows through circuit
a) Presses lightly against the commutators so that that the X; electromagnet is made on the solenoid and in turn
coil rotates freely and easily. attracts the soft iron armature. The closes the contacts in
circuit Y.
b) Connect the coil to the electric current source.
4. Circuit Breakers
Reasons why carbon brushes and commutators are
made of graphite  Circuit breakers are used to protect electrical
components from excessive flow of current.
a) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.

b) It serves as a lubricant since it is slippery.

Working Mechanism of the Electric Motor

 When the coil is horizontal and current passes

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through it as shown on the diagram, side AB experiences
an upward force while BC experiences a downward force.
The two forces make the coil rotate in the clockwise
direction.

 When the coil is in the vertical position with AB at the top

and CD at the bottom, the brushes touch the spaces
between the two split rings.

 Due to momentum, the coil continues to rotate and the

commutators interchange the contact positions with the
brushes.

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Working Mechanism of a Circuit Breaker

 When excess current flows through the circuit, increased

magnetic power of the electromagnet opens the switch,
thus stopping current flow.

Revision exercise

a. State two factors that affect strength of an

electromagnet

b. In the set up below the suspended meter rule is

balanced by the magnet and the weight shown. The
iron core is fixed on the bench.

i. State and explain the effect on the meter rule

when the switch is closed.

ii. What would be the effect of reversing the battery

terminals?

iii. Suggest how the set up in the figure can be

adopted to measure the current flowing in the
current circuit.

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Chapter Eight WAVES I

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Pulses and waves

a) Describe the formation of pulses and waves 2. Transverse and longitudinal waves

b) Describe transverse and longitudinal waves 3. Amplitude (a) , wavelength (λ), frequency (f),
periodic time(T)
c) Define amplitude (a), wavelength (λ), frequency (f),
and periodic time (T) 4. V= fλ

d) Derive the relation V= fλ 5. Problems involving V= fλ.

e) Solve numerical problems involving V=fλ

Introduction Classification of Mechanical Waves

 In this topic basic concepts about waves are studied. a. Transverse waves
Knowledge about waves has been broadly applied in daily
life e.g. in radio and television, mobile phones, remote
control system, heat energy radiation etc.
 These are waves in which displacement of medium
Definition of a wave particles is at right angle to the direction of propagation
of the wave. Examples of transverse wave are water
 A wave refers to the transmission of a disturbance. A wave waves, waves on a rope swung up and down. Transverse
therefore transmits energy from one point to another. waves travel as a series of crests and troughs.

Classification of Waves

 Waves can be broadly classified as electromagnet or

mechanical in nature.

1. Electromagnet waves

 These are waves which do not require material medium  A crest is the highest point of a transverse wave while a
for transmission. Such waves can be propagated in trough is the lowest point of a transverse wave
vacuum. Examples of electromagnetic waves are Radio
waves, Radiant heat e.g. from sun, light, Microwaves etc.  Formation of transverse wave can be illustrated by
swinging a slinky spring or a rope fixed at one end up and
 NB: Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature down.

2. Mechanical waves b. Longitudinal waves

 These are waves which do require a material medium  These are waves in which displacement of medium
particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of

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for transmission. Such waves cannot be propagated in the wave. Examples of longitudinal wave are Sound
vacuum. Examples of mechanical waves are water wave, waves on a slinky spring fixed at one end and
waves, sound waves etc. vibrated to and two etc.

 Longtudional waves consists of sections of rarefactions

andcompressions. Compressions are sections of high
pressure in which particles are ppushed closer together
while rarefactions are sections of low pressure in which
particles are pulled slightly further a part from one
another.Pressure variation in a longtudional wave is
what causes wave motion.

Terms Associated with Waves

 Consider the transverse waveform and an oscillating

pendulum bobshown below.

 Formaton of longtudinal wave ca be illustrated by

vibrating a slinky spring fixed at one end to and fro along
its length.

Examples

a. What is a progressive wave?

It is a wave that moves continualy away from the

source.

b. Explain why the amplitude of a progressive 1. Oscillation – an oscillation is a complete to and ffo
wave decreases gradually from the source. motion. For example, in the above oscillating bob, a
complete oscillation is D-E-F-E-D.
As the wave move away from the source, the
2. Amplitude, A - it is the maximum displacement of a

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energy is spread over an increasingly large area. particle from mean position. Its SI unit is the metre
(m). For an oscillating pendulum bob above DE or EF is
Exercise the amplitude.

1. Diferentiate between electromagnetic 3. Wavelength, λ – it is the distance between any two particles
and mechanical wave giving one in a wave that are in phase. It is denoted by Greek letter
example in each lambda, λ. Its SI unit is the meter (m).

2. State two categories waves. Note: Particles in a wave are said to be in phase if they
are oscillating in same direction and at the same level
3. State two types of mechanical waves. State of displacement.
the difference between them.

4. Give two examples of mechanical waves.

Pulse

 A pulse is a single disturbance that is transimitted through

a medium.It can be transverse or longtudional in nature.
Generation of a pulse can be illustrated by jerking a rope Particles A and D, B and E are in phase. C and D are
fixed at one end just once. out of phase by 1800.

 From the wave equation, if speed of the wave is

constant, frequency is inversely proportional to
wavelength. This can be presented graphically as
shown below.

Example

The figure below shows a displacement-time graph of a

wave travelling at 2500cms-1
4. Period, T- it’s the time taken by a particle to complete one
oscillation. SI unit of period is the second(s )

5. Frequency, f– it is the number of complete oscillations

(full wavelengths) made by a particle in one second. SI
unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).

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Relationship between Frequency and Period
Frequency I
 is the reciprocal of period i.e. f =
T

6. Speed of the wave -It is the distance covered by a

wave in one second.

The Wave Equation

Determine for the wave:
 The wave equation relates Speed, V, Wavelength, λ and
Frequency, f of a Wave a) Amplitude
Generally, distance
 speed = Solution
time
A = maximum displacement from mean position
 For a distance of wavelength covered by a wave, time
taken is equivalent to the period of the wave. = 3cm OR 0.03m in SI units

∴ speed =
wavelength b) Periodic
period
time Solution
V λ I
= = λ×
T T T = (9 - 1)x 10-3s

I = 8x10-3s
But, f = and therefore V = λf
T

This is called the wave speed equation

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c) Frequency 10. Water waves are observed as they pass a fixed point at
a rate of 30 crests per minute. A particular wave crest
Solution takes 2 seconds to travel between two points 6m apart.
Determine:
I 1
f= = Hz
T 8X10-3 i. The frequency
-3
= 0.125×10 Hz = 125Hz ii. The wavelength

d) Wavelength 11. Calculate the wavelength of the KBC FM radio wave

transmitted at a frequency of 95.6 MHz
Solution
12. The audible frequency range for a certain person is
V = fλ between 30 Hz and 16500 Hz. Determine the largest
wavelength of sound in air the person can detect(speed of
V 250ms-1
sound in air is 333m/s)
λ= = -1 = 2m
f 125s .
13. The figure below represents a displacement-time graph
Revision Exercise for a wave.
1. State the wave formula

2. Sketch the variation of frequency with wavelength given

that speed of the wave remains constant

3. Name two types of progressive wave motion.

4. A vibrator sends out 12 ripples per second across a ripple

tank. The ripples are observed to be 5cm apart. Find the
velocity of the ripples.
i. Determine the frequency of the wave
5. A water wave travels 2m in 5 seconds. If the frequency
of the wave is 10Hz, calculate the:
ii. Sketch on the same axes the displacement-time
graph of the wave of same frequency but 180 0
I. Speed of the wave out of phase and with smaller amplitude.

II. Wavelength of the wave

6. The diagram below shows a displacement-time graph for a

certain wave.

I. How many oscillations are shown above?

II. Calculate the frequency of the wave

III. Calculate the periodic time of the wave

7. Sketch the wave form of twice the frequency of the wave

above.

8. Electromagnetic waves travels at a velocity of 3.0x108ms-1

in air, calculate the wavelength in air of radio
waves

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transmitted at a frequency of 200MHz.

9. Wave ripples are caused to travel across the surface of a

shallow tank by means of a suitable straight vibrator. The
distance between successive crests is 6.0cm and the waves
travel 50.4cm in 3.6 seconds. Calculate:

i. The wavelength

ii. Velocity

iii. Frequency of the vibrator.

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Chapter Nine FLUID FLOW

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Streamline and turbulent flow

a) Describe streamline flow and turbulent flow 2. Equation of continuity

b) Derive the equation of continuity 3. Bernoulli’s effect (experimental treatment required)

c) Describe experiments to illustrate Bernoulli’s effects 4. Application of Bernoulli’s effect: Bunsen burner, spray
gun, carburetor, aero foil, spinning ball etc.
d) Explain the Bernoulli’s effect
5. Problems on equation of continuity
e) Describe the application of Bernoulli’s effect

f) Solve numerical problems involving the equation of

continuity

Fluid Characteristics of Streamline Flow

 A fluid refers to any substance that is capable of flowing I. Streamlines are parallel to each other.
due to pressure difference. It includes both liquids and
gases. Examples of fluid flow include: perfume spray II. Streamline flow is smooth and steady.
from a perfume bottle, flow of water along a river bed,
smoke from chimney etc. A flowing fluid experiences  Some shapes and bodies are designed to be streamlined
internal resistance called viscosity. to enhance their motion in fluids. A body is said to be
streamlined if it does not affect the distribution of
Types of Fluid Flow streamlines behind it.

 There two types of fluid flow: streamline (steady) and

turbulent flows

1. Streamline (steady) flow

 It is a flow in which at any given point each and every

particle of the fluid travels in the same direction and with
same velocity.

 A streamline refers to the path followed by the particle in

 Examples of streamlined bodies include: cars, jumbo
a streamline flow. It is represented by a line with an arrow
jets, birds that fly, fish etc.
head.

 Note: Streamlines do not cross each other but are closer

where the fluid is moving faster

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2. Turbulent Flow  If the velocity of fluid through region B is vB, the average
cross-section area of tube is A B and the distance covered
 It is a flow in which the speed and direction of the fluid by the fluid in direction of flow is for time, tB, is dB, then
particles passing at any point vary with time. Turbulent
the volume flux through that region is :
flow occurs due to:
volume volume V
I. Abrupt change of cross sectional area of the tube flux or flow rate = =
of flow. time tB

But volume = cross–section area× length

V = AB×dB
d ×A d
Volume flux = B B = B×A
II. Speed of the fluid flow changes sharply or tB tB B
suddenly and beyond a critical velocity. dB
But, = Velocity, v
III. An obstacle is placed on the path of streamlines tB
and blocks or breaks the streamlines. B

∴ Volume flux = vB×AB

Volume flux = velocity ×cross section area of tube of flow

Mass Flux

 It is the mass of a fluid that flows through a given section

Characteristics of Turbulent Flow of tube of flow per unit time.
mass mass
i. The streamlines are not continuous flux =
time
ii. Particles do not travel in same direction and have
different velocity. But, mass = density ×volume. That

Notes: is, m = ρ×V.

∴ ρ×V
1. When bodies which are not streamlined (non- mass flux =
streamlined) move in fluids, they cause eddies t
(turbulence) in the fluid. A body is said to be non- V
streamlined if it produces eddies behind it. But, = volume
flux. t
2. Critical velocity is the speed of flow of fluid beyond which mass flux = density of fluid,ρ×volume flux
the fluid exhibits turbulent flow.
∴ mass flux
Volume Flux (Flow Rate) = density of fluid×velocity of fluid×cross
-section area of tube
 This is the volume of a fluid passing through a given
section of a tube of flow per unit time. The Equation of the Continuity
volume of fluid passing givensection time Assumptions made in deriving the equation of the
Volume flux = the fluid takes to pass the section .
continuity
 SI unit of volume flux is cubic meter per second
1. The fluid is flowing steadily (i.e. has a streamline flow)
(m3/s)
2. The fluid is incompressible

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 Consider a fluid flowing through a section B of flow 3. The fluid is non- viscous.
tube shown below.

Deriving Equation of Continuity a) What is the velocity of the liquid between A and B?

 Consider the tube of flow below with changing cross- Solution

section areas.
Flow rate
 Section 1 has a cross section area of A1 while section volume
= = cross - section area,A×velocity,v
2 has cross section area of A2.Velocity of fluid in time
section 1 is v1 while in section 2 is v2. v1 > v2
-6 3
8×10 m -4 2
 Volume of fluid flowing through section 1 per unit time is = 1×10 m ×v
equal to volume of fluid flowing through section 2 per 1s
-6 3
unit time i.e. flow rate/ volume flux is a constant. 8×10 m -2 -1
v= -4 2 = 8×10 ms
Volume flux in section 1 = volume flux in section 2 1 s×1×10 m
b) What is the velocity of the liquid between BC?
A1v1=A2 v2
Solution
i.e. cross section area ×velocity = constant A v
A1v1=A2 v2
= constant.

 This is the equation of continuity which is also called

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flow rate equation. 1×10-4m2×8×10-2ms-1 = 1×10-6m2×v
2

-4 2 -2 -1
1×10 m ×8×10 ms -1
v2 = -6 2 = 8 ms
1×10 m

Examples

1. Water flows through a horizontal pipe at a rate of

1.00m3/min. Determine the velocity of the water at
a point where the diameter of the pipe is 1.00cm Exercise

Solution 1. A garden sprinkler has small holes, each 2.00 mm 2

in area. If water is supplied at the rate of 3.0x10 -3
flow rate = Av
m3s-1 and the average velocity of the spray is 10ms -1,
1.00 m
3
-2 2 2
calculate the number of the holes.
= π(1.00×10 2) m ×v
60 s 2. Oil flows through a 6cm internal diameter pipe at an
1.00 average velocity of 5ms-1. Find the flow rate in m 3/s
v= = 212.18 ms-1
60×π×2.5×10-5 and cm/s

2. In figure below, the tube ABC is filled with a 3. The velocity of glycerin in a 5cm internal
liquid. The piston moves from A to B in 1 second. diameter pipe is 1.00m/s. Find the velocity in a 3cm
internal diameter pipe that connects with it, both
pipes flowing full.

Bernoulli’s Effect

 It states that: provided a fluid is non- viscous, in

compressible and its flow streamline an increase
in its velocity produces a corresponding decreases
a) What is the volume of the liquid in point AB in the pressure it exerts while a decrease in its
velocity produces a corresponding increase in
Solution pressure.
volume = cross - section area×length Bernoulli’s Effect in Practice
volume = 1×10-4m2×8×10-2m = 8×10-6m3 1. Consider the set- up below in which pipe A and C have
some diameter tubes

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4. A light paper held in front of the mouth and air blown

horizontally over it is observed to rise. This is because the
velocity of air above paper increases leading to reduction
in pressure. The higher atmospheric pressure acting from
below produces a force that lifts the paper upwards.

 When air is blown into the tube by a blower, it is

observed that water rises to same level in tube D and
F. In E the level of water is higher than D and F.

 Velocity of air in pipe A and C are the same due to same Bernoulli’s Principle
cross- sectional areas. Moving air causes a reduction of
pressure and since resulting air pressure is the same,  It states that: ”provided the fluid is non- viscous
atmospheric pressure pushes up the water to the same incompressible and has a streamline flow, the sum
level. of pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume and
potential energy per unit volume is a constant”.
 The speed of moving air in narrower section B is higher
and the resulting pressure is much lower than A and C, Mathematical Expression for Bernoulli’s Principle
hence water rises to higher level in E.
 Consider a fluid of density, ρ, mass, m, flowing through a
pipe with a velocity,v and pressure at any given point, P.
2. When air is blown above the opening of the flask shown the
pith ball is observed to rise from the bottom.

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The kinetic energy
kinetic energy per unit volume =
volume;

1
2mv2 mv 2 m
= ; but ρ =
V 2V V
1
∴ kinetic energy per unit volume = ρV2
2
Potential potential energy
energy per unit volume =
volume
mgh
 The blown air causes reduction of pressure at the top = ρgh
V
therefore, there is a net force upwards as the pressure
difference pushes the pith ball upwards. ∴ Bernoulli’s principle can be expressed as:
1
P + ρV2 + ρgh = constant
2
3. When air is blown horizontally between two suspended
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
balloons in the horizontal direction, the balloons are
observed to move towards each other.
1. The Aero foil

 It is a structure designed in such way that the fluid

moving above it moves with a higher speed than the one
moving below

 Moving air leads to reduced pressure on the inner sides of

the balloons. The higher atmospheric pressure acting on
the outer surfaces causes the balloons to move closer to
each other.

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 The pressure above the aero foil is therefore lower than  Air velocity at constriction is higher. This makes the
the pressure below it. The pressure difference between the pressure at the constriction drop. The atmospheric
top and bottom gives rise to the lift of the aero foil. This is pressure being higher pushes the petrol to the
called dynamic lift. constriction.

Revision Exercise

2. Bunsen burner 1. The figure below shows a pith ball placed in a flask.
When a jet of air is blown over the mouth of the
flask as shown, the pith ball is observed to rise from
the bottom.

 When gas is made to flow into the Bunsen burner, its

velocity increases as it passes through the nozzle; this Explain this observation
decreases the pressure above the nozzle. Because of
higher atmospheric pressure outside the barrel, air is then 2. State Bernoulli’s principle
drawn in.
3. A pipe of radius 6mm is connected to another pipe
 The air and the gas then mix as they rise up and when of radius 9mm. If water flows in the wider pipe at
ignited a flame is produced. the speed of 2ms-1, what is the speed in the
narrower pipe?

4. The figure below shows a tube of varying cross-

3. Spray Gun section area. v1,v2,v3 and v4 represent the speed of
water as it flows steadily through the sections of the

tube

Arrange the speeds v1,v2,v3 and v4 in decreasing

order starting with the highest.

5. The figure below shows a sheet of paper rolled into a

tube.
 When the piston is pushed forward air is made to flow
through the barrel and therefore causes low pressure in
the barrel. High atmospheric pressure on the surface of
the liquid compels the liquid to move up the tube.

When a fast stream of air is blown into the tube as

 The velocity of the liquid is increased as it pushes through
shown in the diagram the paper tube collapses. Explain
the nozzle due to reduced cross section area. The liquid
the observation.
therefore emerges as a fine spray.
6. The figure below shows a horizontal tube with two
vertical tubes X and Y. water flows through the
4. The carburetor. horizontal tube from right to left. The water level in
tube X is higher than water level in tube Y.

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Explain this observation

Chapter Ten REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to: 1. Concave, convex and parabolic reflectors

a) Describe concave, convex and parabolic reflectors 2. Principal axis, principal focus, centre of curvature
and related terms
b) Describe using ray diagrams the principal axis,
principal focus centre of curvature and related terms. 3. Location of images formed by curved mirrors by
construction method (experiment on curved mirrors
c) Locate images formed by curved mirrors by required)
construction
4. Magnification formula
d) Determine experimentally the characteristics of
images formed by concave mirror 5. Applications of curved reflectors

e) Define magnification

f) Explain the applications of curved reflectors

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REFLECTION AT CURVED 3. Parabolic Reflector/ Mirror

SURFACES  It is a curved reflector whose reflecting surface curves
Introduction more inwards than that of the concave reflector. It is
obtained by highly polishing the outside of a glass cone.
 Curved reflectors are obtained from hollow spheres, cones
or cylinders. The surfaces of these hollow solids are then
highly polished from the inside or outside depending on
the type of curved reflector being made. Concave and
convex mirrors are also called spherical mirrors.

Types of Curved Reflectors

1. Concave Reflector/ Mirror

Terms Associated with Curved Reflectors
 This is a reflector whose reflecting surface curves
inwards. It is obtained by highly polishing the outside of a  Consider the diagrams below;
glass sphere portion.

2. Convex Reflector/ Mirror

 This is a reflector whose reflecting surface curves

outwards. It is obtained by highly polishing the inside of a
glass sphere portion.

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a. Aperture

 This is the width of the mirror

b. Pole, P
j. Focal length, f
 This is the geometrical centre of the mirror.
 This is the distance from the pole of the mirror to its
c. Centre of curvature, C principal focus.

 This is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror forms Note: In optics full lines represent real rays and
a part. The centre of curvature of a concave mirror is in objects while dotted lines represent virtual rays and
front while that of a convex mirror is behind the mirror. images.

d. Radius of curvature, r Exercise

 It is the radius of a sphere of which the curved mirror The figure below shows two parallel rays incident on
forms a part. a concave mirror. F is the focal point of the mirror.

e. Principal/ main axis

 This is the line passing through the pole and the centre of
curvature of the curved mirror.

f. Paraxial rays and marginal rays

 These are rays which are close and parallel to the Sketch on the same diagram the path of the rays after
principal axis while marginal rays are those that are striking the mirror.
parallel but not close to the principal axis.
Relationship between Radius of Curvature and
g. Principal focus, F, of a concave mirror Focal Length

 It can be shown through geometry that the radius of

 It is the point at which all the rays parallel and close to
curvature is twice the focal length i.e.
the principal axis converge after reflection. Principal
focus of a concave mirror is real because reflected rays r = 2f
actually pass through it.
Laws of Reflection in Curved Mirrors
h. Principal focus, F, of a convex mirror
These is the point at which all rays parallel and close to  Reflection at curved surfaces also obeys laws of
the principal axis appear to emerge/ diverge from after reflection:
reflection. The principal focus of a convex mirror is
virtual because reflected rays only appear to pass through 1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
it. reflection at the point of incidence

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i. Focal plane 2. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all
lie on the same plane at the point of incidence.
 This is a plane perpendicular to the principal axis and
passes through the principal focus. For a concave mirror,
parallel rays which are not parallel to the principal axis
converge at a point on the focal plane after reflection. For
a convex mirror, parallel rays which are not parallel to
the principal axis appear to emerge from a point on focal
plane after reflection.

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3. A ray through the centre of curvature (for concave) or

appearing to pass through centre of curvature (for
convex mirror) is reflected along the same path.

Ray Diagrams

 Ray diagrams are used to show and explain how images

are formed by curved mirrors and the characteristics of
these images.

Four Major Cases in the Construction of Ray Diagrams

1. A ray close and parallel to principal axis passes through 4. A ray at an angle to the principal axis and incident at the
principal focus (for concave mirror) or appears to emerge pole is reflected in such a way that the angle of incidence
from the principal focus (for convex mirror) after is equal to the angle of reflection.
reflection.

2. A ray through the principal focus of a concave or

appearing to be directed to the principal focus of convex
mirror is reflected parallel to the principal axis. Characteristics of Images Formed by Curved Reflectors

A. Concave mirrors

i. Object at infinity

Convex mirror

image is real, formed

at F, inverted and
smaller than the

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ii. Object at c isabokemicah
@gThem Pa
image formed is behind the g e virtual,
mirror, | upright
ail.com and larger than the object. 83

B. Convex mirror

 Irrespective of the distance of the object in front of the

mirror, images formed by convex mirrors are always
 Image formed is at C, real, inverted and same size as upright, smaller than the object and between P and F.
the object.

iii. Object beyond C

Example

A lady holds a large concave mirror of focal length 1

m, 80 cm from her face.
 Image formed is between C and F, real, inverted and
smaller than the object. a. Using suitable construction illustrate how her
image is formed

iv. Object between C and F

b. State two characteristics of her image in the

mirror.

o Image upright

 The image formed is beyond C, real, inverted, larger o Image magnified

than the object (magnified)
Exercise
v. Object at F
1. The figure below shows a ray of light incident on a
convex mirror
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2. The figure below shows parabolic surface with
a source of light placed at its focal point F

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Draw rays to show reflection from the surface when ii. Size of the image
rays from the source strike the surface at points A, B, C
and D iii. Nature of the image

3. The figure below shows a vertical object, O, placed iv. magnificatio

in front of a convex mirror
n solution

On the same diagram draw the appropriate rays and

locate the image formed.

4. The figure below shows a bright behind a screen

which has a hole covered with wire gauze. A
concave mirror of focal length 25 cm is placed in
front of the screen. The position of the mirror is
i. Image position is 13.6 X 2 = 27.2 cm from P
adjusted until a sharp image of the gauze is formed
in front of the mirror.
on the screen.
ii. Size of the image is 6.6 X 2 = 13.2 cm

iii. Nature of the image: the image is inverted, real

and magnified
image height 13.2 cm
iv. magnification = = = 4.4
object height 3 cm

Determine the distance between the screen and the

mirror. 2. A convex mirror of focal length 15 cm produces an
image 10 cm away from the mirror. If the image is 3
Graphical Construction of Ray Diagrams cm high, determine by scale drawing
 Images are drawn to scale in a ray diagram and this is i. The object distance
best done on graph paper.
ii. Object height/ size
Linear (Transverse) Magnification
iii. Magnificatio
 It is the ratio of the image height to the object height. It
can also be defined as the ratio of the image distance to n Solution
the object distance.

Linear (transverse) magnification

image height image distance

= object height = object distance

Examples

1. An object 3 cm high is placed 6 cm in front of a

concave mirror of radius of curvature 10 cm. By
scale

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drawing determine the:

i. Position of the image

i. The object distance is 6 X 5 = 30 cm

ii. Object height/ size is 1.4 X 5 = 7 cm

iii. Magnification image height
=
object height
3 cm
= = 0.4285
7 cm

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Exercise 2. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a convex
mirror of focal length 20 cm. Determine the position
1. A concave mirror of focal length 10 cm forms a and nature of the image.
sharp image at 40 cm from the mirror. Determine
graphically the position of the object and Solution
magnification of the image.
f is negative (-20 cm) according to real-is-positive
2. A concave mirror of focal length 20 cm forms convention
a real image two times the size of the object. If the
object height is 10 cm, determine by scale 1 1 1
= +
drawing:
f u v
i. The object distance
1 1 1
- = +
ii. The image distance 20 10 v
The Mirror Formula 1 11 3
=- - =-
The object distance u, the focal length fand the image v 20 10 20
distance v related by the mirror formula:
20
1 1 1 v=- = -6.667 cm
= + 3
f u v
The image is virtual ( because v is negative), upright and
Real-Is-Positive Convention
diminished (because v is smaller than u)
 This is a sign convention used with the mirror formula in
3. A concave mirror with radius of curvature 10 cm
order to determine the position and nature of the
produces an inverted image two times the size of an
image formed by a curved mirror. According to the
object placed in front of it and perpendicular to the
real-is-positive sign convention:
principal axis. Determine the position of:
a) All distances are measured from the mirror as the
a. The object
origin.
b. The
b) Distances of real objects and images are considered
image Solution
positive e.g. focal length of concave mirrors.
r 10 v
f= = = 5 cm ;m = = 2; v = 2u
c) Distances of virtual objects and images are 2 2 u
considered negative e.g. focal length of convex
mirror. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
= + ; = + ↔ = + =
Examples f u v f u 2u 5 u 2u 2u

= ↔u = 7.5 cm and ∴ v = 2×7.5 cm = 15 cm 2u

1. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave
mirror of focal length 20 cm. Determine the position 3 1
and nature of the image. 5
Solution Exercise
1 1 1 1. The distance between an erect image and the
= +
f u v object is 40 cm. The image is twice as tall as the
object. Determine:
1 1 1
= + i. The object distance.
20 10 v
ii. The radius of curvature.

2. A vertical object 10 cm high is placed 20 cm away

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from a con vex mirror of radius of curvature 30
cm.

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1 1 1 1 determine:
v = 20 - 10 = - 20
i. The image distance.
v = -20 cm
ii. The height of the image.
The image is virtual ( because v is negative), upright and
magnified (because v is greater than u) iii. The magnification of the image.

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3. The distance between an object and its magnified
 Therefore, a graph of uv against u + v is a straight line
real image produced by a concave mirror is 40 cm through the origin whose gradient is positive. The
when the object is placed 20 cm from the pole gradient of the graph gives f
of the mirror. Determine the:

i. Transverse magnification of the image.

3. Graph of m against v
ii. The focal length of the mirror.
1 1 1
 From the mirror formula = + , multiplying all
Graphical Analysis of the f u
Mirror Formula through by v gives
v
1. v v v v v
Graph of = + ↔ = +1
1 1u v
against
 It is a straight line graph with a negative gradient, f u v f u
implying that the image is inverted relative to the v v
object. =m+ 1, since = m
f u
v
∴ m = 1 -f

1 1 1
 The -
intercept or the - intercept gives
u v f

2. Graph of uv against u + v

 From the mirror formula 1 = 1 + 1 ,  Therefore, a graph of m against vis a straight line with
f u v 1
agradient of and m- intercept is -1. Also the
1 v+u uv v - intercept gives the focal length, f
= ; f=
f uv v+u
Exercise

A concave mirror and an illuminated object are used

to produce a sharp image of the object on a screen.
The

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object distances and image distances are given below.

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Object 80.0 26.7 22.4 20.6 19.6
distance,
u (cm)
Image 20.0 40.0 56.0 72.0 88
distance,
v (cm)
u + v (cm)
uv (cm2)
Magnification,
m
1. Complete the table 5. Used as solar concentrators to bring light energy into
focus.
2. Using suitable values:
1 1
i. Plot a graph of against
u v
B. Convex Mirrors
ii. Determine the radius of curvature, f from
the graph
1. Used as car and motorcycle side mirrors because they
3. Plot a graph of uv against u + v and use it to find the form upright images and have a wide field of view
radius of curvature, f
2. Used in supermarkets to monitor movement of customers
4. Plot a graph ofmagnification, m against v and use because they form upright images and have a wide field of
it to find the radius of curvature, f view
Applications of Curved Mirrors

A. Concave Mirrors

1. Used as shaving mirrors because they produce magnified

and upright images when the object is between principal
focus, F and the pole, P.

2. Used by dentist when examining teeth they produce  Note: The defect of spherical mirrors in which marginal
magnified and upright images when the object is between rays are not brought into focus at the principal focus
principal focus, F and the pole, P. resulting in blurred images is called spherical aberration.

Disadvantage of Convex Mirror

1. Convex mirror forms diminished images giving an

impression that the vehicles behind are farther away than
they actually are.

3. Used as reflector behind projector lamp to reflect light C. Parabolic Mirrors

travelling away from the projector. The lamp is placed at
the centre of curvature of the concave mirror.  Used for propagation of parallel light beams of high
intensity in hand torches, searchlights and car head
lights.

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Advantage of Parabolic Mirrors over Concave Mirrors

 Unlike concave mirrors in which marginal rays are not

converged at principal focus, parabolic mirror converges
all rays parallel to principal axis and incident on its
surface at its principal focus.

4. Used in telescopes to bring distance objects (objects at

infinity) like stars into focus at the focal point.

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Revision questions
1. With the aid of a well labeled diagram, explain
the wide field of view of a convex mirror.

2. State on application of each of the following

i. Convex mirror.

ii. Parabolic mirror

3. The figure below which is drawn to a scale of 1:5

represent an object O and its image I formed by
a convex mirror.

By drawing suitable rays, locate and mark on the

figure the position of the principal focus, F of
the mirror. Determine the focal length, f.

4. The figure below shows a point object O placed

in front of a convex mirror.

Draw appropriate rays to locate the image of the

object.

5. State the advantage parabolic mirror

over concave mirror.

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