ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the biological process by which new organisms are
produced to ensure the perpetuation of the species. There are 2 main
reproductive methods:
❏ Asexual
❏ Sexual
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In asexual reproduction, a single
parent produces offspring that are
genetically identical.
The characteristics of the parent
are conserved. There are several
types of asexual reproduction:
❏ Mitosis
❏ Binary Fission
❏ Vegetative Propagation
❏ Cloning
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In sexual reproduction, two parents produce offspring that are
genetically different. Sexual reproduction involves the formation of
gametes (sex cells) by meiosis.
Gametes fuse to form a single cell called the zygote, which shows
variation from their parents and other offspring.
SEXUAL VS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the genetic
information used in the development and
functioning of all organisms.
DNA consists of 4 nucleotides whose sequence
determines the characteristics of a cell.
CHROMOSOMES
❏ DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones.
❏ When the cell is not dividing, DNA
exists as long, thin strands called
chromatin.
❏ When a cell begins to divide, the
chromatin fibres coil into compact
structures called chromosomes,
which are shorter and thicker
GENES
A gene is a sequence of DNA that
encodes for a specific protein and
therefore a particular
characteristic of an organism.
Genes are the units of hereditary.
The position of a gene on a
particular chromosome is called
the locus.
ALLELES
Alleles are alternative forms of
a gene that code for the
different variations of a specific
trait.
Alleles only differ from each
other by one or a few bases.
New alleles are formed by
mutations, which change the
sequence of a section of DNA.
RNA
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded
molecule that transfers genetic instructions from
the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
TYPES OF RNA
❏ Messenger RNA (mRNA) – a transcript copy of a gene which encodes a
specific polypeptide
❏ Transfer RNA (tRNA) – carries amino acids to the ribosome for protein
synthesis
❏ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – a primary component of the ribosome and is
responsible for protein synthesis.
DNA CONTROLS ALL LIFE
❏ Enzymes, which are made out of proteins, regulate the functions and
behaviour of cells.
❏ The sequence of amino acids of each protein is assembled according to the
instructions the genes code for.
❏ Each human body cell has over 30,000 genes, and each gene controls a
particular characteristic.
CHROMOSOME NUMBER
All the cells of one individual contain an identical combination of genes and
a specific number of chromosomes. The chromosome number of humans is
46.
CELL SPECIFICATION
❏ The combination of genes in an individual is unique.
❏ Only identical twins and asexually produced organisms have the same
combination of genes.
❏ Variation between cells and individuals is possible, as some genes can be
active or inactive, leading to cell specification.
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
Chromosomes exist in pairs known as homologous pairs. Human cells
have 23 pairs, one member of each pair being of maternal origin and the
other of paternal origin.
With the exception of sex
chromosomes, homologous
chromosomes are similar in
shape, size, and genetic
composition.
While the genes are the same,
alleles may be different.
DIPLOID AND HAPLOID
❏ Cells possessing pairs of homologous chromosomes are diploid (2n). All
body (somatic) cells are diploid.
❏ Cells with only one set of chromosomes or half the diploid number are
haploid (n). All sex cells (gametes) are haploid.
KARYOTYPE
A karyotype is a picture of all the chromosomes in a cell, arranged by size.
A normal human karyotype will show 46 chromosomes:
★ 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes
called autosomes.
★ 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
Karyotypes can be used to detect extra or
missing chromosomes that could lead to
several congenital conditions. (Down
syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Edward’s
syndrome).
THE CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is the series of events that results in cell division. It consists of an
Interphase and a mitotic phase.
During interphase, the cell grows and carries out
its functions. The cell prepares for cell division by
accumulating nutrients, increasing its size and
number of organelles, and replicating its DNA.
At the end of interphase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
MITOSIS
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which the genetic material of the
parent cell is duplicated and two genetically identical daughter cells are
produced. Mitosis occurs in all body cells except in the formation of
gametes.
Mitosis (nuclear division) is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) is usually
followed after.
MITOSIS
MITOSIS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NwwcWqL5hhI
PROPHASE
❏ Each duplicated chromosome appears as two identical sister
chromatids joined together at the centromere.
❏ Nuclear envelope disintegrates.
❏ The centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell.
❏ Spindle fibres are produced and attached to the centromere
METAPHASE
❏ The chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (equatorial
plane), which is an imaginary line equidistant from the two
spindle poles.
ANAPHASE
❏ Chromatids separate and are now considered an individual
chromosome
❏ Spindle fibres pull chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell.
❏ The two ends of the cell now
have equivalent and identical
collections of chromosomes.
TELOPHASE
❏ Once the chromosomes arrive at the poles, the spindle fibres
dissolve
❏ Chromosomes unravel form chromatin threads
❏ The nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes to
make two identical nuclei.
CYTOKINESIS
❏ Cytokinesis, the division of cytoplasm, occurs concurrently with
telophase
❏ The cell membrane develops down the middle of the cell (cleavage)
❏ Two identical cells are produced.
IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS
❏ The chromosome number is maintained for a species.
❏ Each daughter cell has an identical combination of genes.
❏ Essential for growth and tissue repair for multicellular organisms.
❏ Asexual reproduction (binary fission, vegetative propagation, cloning)
BINARY FISSION
Binary fission occurs in simple,
unicellular organisms, like bacteria
and protozoans.
This process is simpler than mitosis,
as prokaryotes do not have a
nucleus and only one set of
chromosomes.
First, the chromosomes replicate,
then separate.
Cytokinesis occurs after, producing
two genetically identical organisms.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Plants can reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation. This can occur
naturally or artificially.
Natural vegetative propagation:
❏ Fragmentation
❏ Stolons
❏ Rhizomes
❏ Corms
❏ Blubs
❏ Tubers
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Artificial vegetative propagation:
❏ Cutting
❏ Grafting
❏ Plant tissue culture
CLONING
A clone is an exact copy of an organism.
Cloning can happen naturally with twins. This occurs when the cells of the
zygote separate and develop independently.
CLONING
Cloning can occur artificially when the
nucleus is removed from the ovum of a
female donor and is replaced with the
nucleus of another cell.
This newly created ovum is placed into a
surrogate mother and develops into an
embryo.
BENEFITS OF CLONING
❏ Endangered species can be preserved.
❏ Provides organs for transplantation
❏ Ensures farmers can provide consistently high-quality livestock and
crops.
ISSUES WITH CLONING
❏ Cloning technology has a high failure rate, leading to potential
developmental abnormalities and health complications in cloned
organisms.
❏ Psychological implications on the clone, impacting their sense of
individuality and identity.
❏ Cloned humans used for organ harvesting can be seen as
dehumanizing
❏ Cloning to maintain desirable traits can lead to genetic
manipulation and discrimination.
ISSUES WITH CLONING
❏ Cloning could significantly alter traditional family structures
❏ Widespread cloning could lead to a reduction in genetic diversity,
making organisms more susceptible to disease.
❏ Cloning interferes with the
natural order of procreation
and could be seen as
"playing God"
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the cellular division that results in 4 genetically different, haploid
daughter cells. Meiosis occurs only in the ovaries and testes to produce
gametes.
There are two cell divisions in
meiosis:
❏ The first meiotic division
separates pairs of
homologous
chromosomes.
❏ The second meiotic
division separates sister
chromatids
INTERPHASE
Interphase also occurs before meiosis. During which, the DNA is
replicated. The two identical DNA molecules are identified as sister
chromatids.
MEIOSIS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GHIlA76-h3c
PROPHASE-I
❏ Chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
❏ Nuclear envelope disintegrates.
❏ Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
❏ Synapsis, the pairing up of homologous chromosomes, occurs forming
bivalents (tetrads)
❏ Crossing over occurs
CROSSING OVER
Bivalents are held together randomly at points called chiasmata.
Crossing over of genetic material between non-sister chromatids can occur at
these chiasmata, resulting in new gene combinations in the chromatids
(recombination).
The daughter cells will
become genetically
distinct, as crossing over
increases genetic
variation.
METAPHASE-I
❏ Spindle fibres attach to
centromeres
❏ Bivalents move to the equator of
the cell
❏ Independent assortment occurs
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
During metaphase I, orientation of homologous chromosomes is random, as
is the subsequent assortment of chromosomes into gametes.
This random, independent
assortment results in 223 or
over 8 million genetic
combinations.
This increases genetic
variation.
ANAPHASE-I
❏ Spindle fibers contract and split the bivalent
❏ Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite
poles of the cell.
❏ The sister chromatids are still attached and move together.
TELOPHASE-I CYTOKINESIS
❏ A nuclear membrane forms ❏ Cytokinesis occurs, which involves
around the chromosomes at the formation of a cleavage furrow
each pole of the cell. in animals or a cell plate in plants.
❏ Chromosomes decondense into ❏ Two genetically different diploid
chromatin daughter cells are formed.
❏ Centrioles divide
PROPHASE-II
❏ Chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
❏ Nuclear envelope disintegrates.
❏ Centrioles move to opposite poles of the
cell
METAPHASE-II ANAPHASE-II
❏ Spindle fibres attach to ❏ Sister chromatids separate.
centromeres ❏ Chromosomes move to
❏ Chromosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell.
metaphase plate
TELOPHASE-II CYTOKINESIS
❏ A nuclear membrane forms ❏ Cytokinesis occurs, forming 4
around the chromosomes at
genetically different haploid
each pole of the cell.
❏ Chromosomes decondense daughter cells are formed.
into chromatin
MEIOSIS
Meiosis ensures that each daughter cell has the haploid number of
chromosomes so that the diploid number can be restored after
fertilisation.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis ensures that each daughter cell has a different combination
of genes, which leads to variation among offspring. Genetic variation
arises through:
❏ Crossing over
❏ Random independent
assortment
❏ Random fertilisation of
gametes (any one male
gamete can fertilize any
one female gamete).
MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS
Mnemonic: DISCO PUG
THE END : )
