DNA Structure
1. Double Helix: DNA consists of two strands that coil around each other, forming a double
helix.
2. Nucleotides: The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, each composed of a
phosphate group, a sugar (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base.
3. Nitrogenous Bases: There are four types of bases in DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T),
cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
4. Base Pairing: A pairs with T and C pairs with G, held together by hydrogen bonds.
5. Antiparallel Strands: The two DNA strands run in opposite directions (5’ to 3’ and 3’ to
5’).
6. Major and Minor Grooves: The twisting of the helix creates major and minor grooves,
important for protein binding.
7. Sugar-Phosphate Backbone: The sides of the helix are formed by alternating sugar and
phosphate groups.
8. Genetic Information: DNA encodes genetic information that directs cellular processes.
9. Chromosomes: DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes in eukaryotic
cells.
10. Supercoiling: DNA can be supercoiled, allowing it to fit within the nucleus.
RNA Structure
11. Single-Stranded: RNA typically exists as a single strand, though it can fold into complex
shapes.
12. Nucleotides: Like DNA, RNA is made of nucleotides, but its sugar is ribose.
13. Nitrogenous Bases: RNA contains adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine
(G). Uracil replaces thymine found in DNA.
14. Base Pairing: In RNA, A pairs with U and C pairs with G.
15. Types of RNA: Major types include messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA),
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
16. Function: RNA plays a crucial role in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
17. Secondary Structures: RNA can form various secondary structures (like hairpins) due to
intramolecular base pairing.
18. 3D Shapes: The folding of RNA can lead to diverse functional forms, influencing its role
in cellular processes.
19. RNA Viruses: Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material, showcasing its
versatility.
20. Catalytic RNA: Certain RNA molecules, known as ribozymes, have catalytic properties.
Comparative Points
21. Stability: DNA is more stable than RNA due to the absence of the hydroxyl group on the
2’ carbon of deoxyribose.
22. Replication vs. Transcription: DNA is replicated to pass genetic information, while
RNA is transcribed from DNA.
23. Location: DNA is primarily located in the nucleus, while RNA can be found in the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
24. Size: DNA is generally much longer than RNA, which can vary widely in length.
25. Polymerase Enzymes: DNA is replicated by DNA polymerase; RNA is synthesized by
RNA polymerase.
Functional Points
26. Gene Expression: RNA is crucial for translating genetic information into proteins.
27. Regulatory Roles: Certain RNA types, like miRNA and siRNA, play roles in gene
regulation.
28. Ribosome Structure: rRNA is a key component of ribosomes, essential for protein
synthesis.
29. tRNA Function: tRNA transports amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.
30. mRNA Processing: Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes capping, polyadenylation, and splicing
before translation.
Miscellaneous Points
31. Histones: DNA wraps around proteins called histones, aiding in the compaction of
genetic material.
32. Replication Fork: During DNA replication, a replication fork is formed where the
strands are unwound.
33. Mutations: Changes in the DNA sequence can lead to mutations, affecting protein
function.
34. Hydrogen Bonds: Base pairing in DNA is stabilized by hydrogen bonds (A-T has 2, C-G
has 3).
35. Transcription Factors: Proteins that help initiate RNA synthesis by binding to specific
DNA sequences.
Advanced Concepts
36. DNA Sequencing: Techniques like Sanger and next-generation sequencing allow for the
analysis of DNA sequences.
37. RNA Interference: A process where RNA molecules inhibit gene expression, often used
in research and therapeutics.
38. CRISPR Technology: Utilizes RNA to edit genes, showing the practical applications of
understanding RNA structure.
39. Telomeres: Repeated DNA sequences at chromosome ends that protect from
degradation.
40. Epigenetics: Modifications to DNA and RNA that influence gene expression without
altering the sequence.
Historical Context
41. Discovery of DNA Structure: James Watson and Francis Crick elucidated the double
helix model in 1953.
42. RNA World Hypothesis: Proposes that early life forms may have relied solely on RNA
for genetic information and catalysis.
43. Nobel Prizes: Significant contributions to DNA and RNA research have been recognized
with multiple Nobel Prizes.
