Chapter-04
DNA and RNA:
The Molecular Basis of Heredity
BIO-3105; Biology for Engineers
Lecture-06+07; 06/08/2025
SM Rafiqul Islam, Ph.D.
Head, BGE, UIU.
Ref book: Biology for Engineers - Arthur T. Johnson
[2nd edition]
Biology for Engineers – G. K. Suraishkumar
and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_-6JXLYS-k
1
Nucleic Acids
2
The Discovery of DNA
3
Basics about Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids carry the genetic blueprint of a cell, and carry
instructions for functioning of the cell
• Two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
• DNA makes up the genetic content (genome) of cells
• Different types of RNA; messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer
RNA(tRNA), ribosomal RNA(rRNA).
• Nucleic acids are made up of monomers called nucleotides
4
DNA and RNA
• Genetics mainly deals with the study of genes,
heredity, and genetic variation.
• Genes exist in chromosomes and chromosomes are
comprised of DNA and proteins. DNA is a molecule
that carries genetic information in all living
organisms where it is used in function, growth,
development and reproduction.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA) are the two types of nucleic acids found in
living systems.
• DNA acts as the genetic material in most of the
organisms. RNA though it also acts as a genetic
material in some viruses, mostly functions as a
messenger.
5
DNA
DNA is a double-helical structure
that carries all the genetic
information.
Its length is determined by the
number of nucleotide pairs
present in it.
It is an acidic substance in the
nucleus identified by Friedrich
Meischer.
Its double helical structure was
given by Watson and Crick.
6
DNA
7
Cyclic Forms of Carbohydrates: Base Sugar
8
3 parts of DNA and RNA
9
DNA
• DNA is made up of 6 molecular structures that
comprise of one phosphate molecule and five carbon
sugar termed deoxyribose.
• A nucleotide is a basic building block of DNA. A
nucleotide is comprised of one of the 4 bases, one sugar
molecule, and one phosphate molecule. A sugar-
phosphate chain act as a backbone and bases are on the
inside. Nucleotide subunits are linked together to form
a DNA strand thus providing polar stability.
• The three-dimensional structure of DNA arises from
chemical and structural features of 2 polynucleotide
chain. A purine base pairs up with pyrimidine base. For
instance guanine pairs with cytosine. So the two strands
that are held together by a hydrogen bond are
complementary to each other and they run in the
antiparallel direction. 10
DNA
The salient features of the Double-helix structure of DNA are as follows:
• It is made of two polynucleotide chains, where the backbone is constituted by sugar-phosphate, and the bases
project inside.
• The two chains have anti-parallel polarity. It means, if one chain has the polarity 5’ to 3', the other has 3’ to 5’.
• The bases in two strands are paired through hydrogen bond (H-bonds) forming base pairs (bp). Adenine forms
two hydrogen bonds with Thymine from opposite strand and vice-versa. Guanine is bonded with Cytosine
with three H-bonds. As a result, always a purine comes opposite to a pyrimidine. This generates
approximately uniform distance between the two strands of the helix.
• The two chains are coiled in a right-handed fashion. The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm and there are roughly 10
bp in each turn. Consequently, the distance between a bp in a helix is approximately 0.34 nm.
• The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in double helix. This, in addition to H-bonds, confers stability
of the helical structure.
11
Central Dogma
The central dogma was proposed by Crick. The central dogma states that the
DNA is converted into RNA and the RNA is converted into proteins.
In retroviruses, the flow of information is opposite, i.e., RNA to DNA to
mRNA to Protein.
12
DNA
Taken the distance between two consecutive base pairs as 0.34 nm (0.34×10–9 m), if the
length of DNA double helix in a typical mammalian cell is calculated (simply by multiplying
the total number of bp with distance between two consecutive bp, that is, 6.6 × 109 bp × 0.34
× 10-9m/bp), it comes out to be approximately 2.2 metres. A length that is far greater than the
dimension of a typical nucleus (approximately 10–6 m). How is such a long polymer
packaged in a cell?
DNA Packaging
The negatively charged DNA is packaged by surrounding the positively charged histone
octamer. A structure called nucleosome is formed. The DNA is packed in chromatin of
eukaryotes.
13
DNA Replication
▪ DNA is self-replicative.
▪ It occurs in the S-phase of the life cycle.
▪ It takes only a few minutes in prokaryotes but
hours in eukaryotes.
▪ DNA undergoes semi-conservative replication, i.e.,
two strands of DNA are formed. One strand is the
same as one of the strands while the other is
complementary to the parent strand.
▪ The replication occurs in 5′-3′ direction.
14
RNA
• Ribonucleic acid or RNA is a vital
molecule with a long chain of
nucleotides.
• A nucleotide chain comprises a
phosphate, a ribose sugar, and
nitrogenous base.
• RNA acts as a catalyst and as genetic
material. There are two types of RNA,
that is genetic and non-genetic.
15
16
17
DNA or RNA?
A molecule that can act as a genetic material must fulfill the following criteria:
• It should be able to generate its replica (Replication).
• It should be stable chemically and structurally.
• It should provide the scope for slow changes (mutation) that are required for
evolution.
• It should be able to express itself in the form of 'Mendelian Characters’.
Mendelian characters are traits (like flower color, seed shape, eye color, etc.) that are passed from parents to offspring
according to predictable patterns, like:
1.Dominant traits — show up if even one parent passes it (e.g., tall plant).
2.Recessive traits — show up only if both parents pass it (e.g., short plant).
18
DNA or RNA?
• If one examines each requirement one by one, because of rule of base pairing and complementarity,
both the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) have the ability to direct their duplications. The other
molecules in the living system, such as proteins fail to fulfill first criteria itself.
• DNA chemically is less reactive and structurally more stable when compared to RNA.
Therefore, among the two nucleic acids, the DNA is a better genetic material.
• The presence of thymine at the place of uracil also confers additional stability to DNA.
• Both DNA and RNA are able to mutate. In fact, RNA being unstable, mutate at a faster rate.
• RNA can directly code for the synthesis of proteins, hence can easily express the characters. DNA,
however, is dependent on RNA for synthesis of proteins.
• DNA being more stable is preferred for storage of genetic information. For the transmission of
genetic information, RNA is better.
19
Genetic code
• The genetic code can be defined as a set of rules wherein the information encoded in genetic materials are
translated into proteins by living cells. The code defines how codons specify which amino acids will be
added next during protein synthesis.
• The genetic code can also be defined as a relationship between the sequence of amino acids in a nucleotide
chain of mRNA or DNA and amino acid in a polypeptide chain.
20
Genetic code
Nearly twenty types of amino acids participate
Glycine
in protein synthesis. Sixty-one codons out of
sixty-four codons code only for amino acids. Threonine
The characteristics of the genetic code are Glutamine
stated below:
Leucine
• Degeneracy of genetic code.
• Non-overlapping.
• Universality.
• Triplet in nature.
• Comma-less.
• Non-ambiguous.
21
Genetic code
• Genetic code refers to the instructions
contained in a gene that tell a cell how to
make a specific protein.
• Each gene’s code uses the four nucleotide
bases of DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G) and thymine (T) — in various
ways to spell out three-letter “codons” that
specify which amino acid is needed at each
position within a protein.
22
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Code
Chapter-04:
DNA and RNA
Ref book: Biology for Engineers - Arthur T. Johnson [2nd edition]
Biology for Engineers – G. K. Suraishkumar
and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_-6JXLYS-k
BIO-3105, Biology for Engineers
Lecture-7; 10/08/2025
SM Rafiqul Islam, Ph.D.
Head, BGE, UIU.
23
RNA
Ribonucleic acid or RNA is a vital
molecule with a long chain of
nucleotides. It is the first genetic
material.
A nucleotide chain comprises a
phosphate, a ribose sugar, and
nitrogenous base. RNA acts as a
catalyst and as genetic material
for protein synthesis.
24
Types of RNA
Regulation of
Gene Expression
25
Coding and Non coding RNAs
▪ Coding RNAs generally refers to mRNA that encodes protein to act as various
components including enzymes, cell structures, and signal transductors.
▪ Noncoding RNAs act as cellular regulators without encoding proteins.
26
Coding and Non coding RNAs
Coding DNA Noncoding RNA
They have a DNA sequence to encode for These DNA sequences do not encode for
proteins. protein.
It has regulatory elements, introns,
The coding sequence has exons. repeating sequences, pseudogenes, and
telomeres.
They are approximately 1% of our total
They form around 99% of our genome.
genome.
They encode proteins that have structural, as
well as functional importance. They control and regulate gene activity.
27
Coding and Non coding RNAs
28
Different types of RNAs:
There are several different types of RNAs with different structures and
functions. These include but are not limited
to mRNA, miRNA, rRNA, tRNA, snRNA, snoRNA, lncRNA,
and cRNA (Ribozymes). They are typically separated into two
categories, protein-coding and non-coding. Currently, mRNA and
miRNA molecules are most commonly used for RNA.
messenger RNA (mRNA) – is the RNA that carries information from
DNA to the ribosomes (site of protein synthesis) in the cell. The mRNA
code sequences determine the amino acid sequence in the protein that is
produced. These are considered protein-coding RNA molecules and
can vary in length.
microRNA (miRNA) – as the name implies, are small RNA molecules
consisting of ~22 nucleotides. We continue to learn about the exact roll
of miRNAs as they are used by the body to regulate expression of
mRNA molecules. These are considered non-coding RNA molecules.
29
30
microRNA (miRNA, µRNA)
MicroRNA (miRNA) is a small, non-coding RNA molecule that regulates gene expression in
cells:
•Function: miRNAs control the types and amounts of proteins cells make by binding to messenger
RNA (mRNA) in the cytoplasm. This binding prevents or delays translation.
•Length: miRNAs are about 22 nucleotides long.
•Location: miRNAs are encoded in the genomes of plants and animals.
•Discovery: Victor Ambros' laboratory discovered miRNAs in 1993 in Caenorhabditis elegans.
•Significance: The discovery of miRNAs is considered a major landmark in modern molecular
biology.
•Role in disease: miRNAs are associated with many diseases, including cancer, cataract,
progressive hearing loss, and skeletal and growth defects.
•Role in drug resistance: miRNAs are linked to drug resistance mechanisms in tumors.
•Role in viral disease: Viral miRNAs play an important role in the pathogenesis of viral disease.
31
RNA therapeutics
• RNA therapeutics are a new class of medications based on ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Research has been working on clinical use since the 1990s, with significant success
in cancer therapy in the early 2010s.
• In 2020 and 2021, mRNA vaccines have been developed globally for use in combating
the coronavirus disease (COVID-19 pandemic).
• The Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine was the first mRNA vaccine approved by
a medicines regulator, followed by the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, and others.
ABSTRACT: “RNA therapeutics” refers to a disease treatment or drug that utilizes RNA as a component. In this context, RNA may be the
direct target of a small-molecule drug or RNA itself may be the drug, designed to bind to a protein, or to mimic or target another RNA.
RNA has gained attention in the drug-development world, as recent clinical successes and breakthrough technologies have revolutionized
the drug-like qualities of the molecule or its usefulness as a drug target. In this special issue of RNA, we gathered expert perspectives on
the past, present, and future of the field, to serve as a primer and also a challenge to the broad scientific community to incorporate RNA
into their experimental design and problem-solving process, and to imagine and realize the potential of RNA as a therapeutic drug or
target.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10019368/pdf/393.pdf
32
Future of RNA in research
https://the-dna-universe.com/2021/04/29/the-future-of-rna-applications-diagnostics-therapeutics-and-research/ 33
RNA has many flavors
Find your Future 34
RNA therapeutics in cancer treatment
https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cbic.202300633
35
RNA therapeutics in Cancer Treatment
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1525001624002995 36
RNA induced immunity/memory
37
https://www.iqvia.com/blogs/2023/11/rna-therapeutics-rewriting-the-script-of-medical-treatments 38
Therapeutic arena of RNA therapeutics
39
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Code
40
Genomics and Medicine
https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-
project
41
Human Genome Project
42
History and timeline of Human Genome Project (HGP)
https://www.genome.gov/sites/default/files/media/files/2020-09/HGP_Timeline.pdf
43
Human Genome Project
The human genome project was launched to sequence the entire human genome of 2.75
billion base pairs. The main goals of the human genome project are:
• To provide a complete sequence of 3 billion base pairs that make up the human genome.
• To sequence the genome of other organisms that are used in medical research; e.g.,
mouse, flies, monkeys, etc.
• To develop new tools to obtain and analyze the data and to make this data widely
available.
• It holds prospects for healthier living, a database of knowledge about designer drugs,
genetically modified diets, and genetic identity.
44
The Goal of Human Genome Project:
Some of the important goals of HGP were as follows:
(i) Identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA;
(ii) Determine the sequences of the 3billion chemical base-pairs that make up human
DNA;
(iii) Store this information in databases;
Find your
(iv) Improve tools for data analysis; Future
(v) Transfer related technologies to other sectors, such as industries;
(vi) Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.
45
Human Genome Project (HGP)
Begun in 1990, the HGP was an ambitious endeavor to generate the first
sequence of the human genome. We brought All of Us staffers together to
reflect on how the HGP laid the foundation for All of Us.
“With the Human Genome Project, what we were so excited about was having a map
of the genes," said Nicole McNeil Ford, Ph.D., an All of Us Program Officer and a former
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) research biologist. "People were
familiar with chromosomes, but we didn't really know exactly where most genes were
mapped on those chromosomes.”
46
Genomic medicine
• Genomic medicine is a medical discipline that involves using a person's genomic
information as part of their clinical care. Other similar terms include individualized
medicine, personalized medicine and precision medicine.
• Genetic medicines are genetic materials such as DNA and RNA delivered into the body as
a therapeutic. They are a promising new class of medicine that was not possible even a
short time ago.
Researchers are testing several approaches, including:
Replacing a disease-causing mutated gene with a healthy gene
Inactivating, or “knocking out,” a malfunctioning mutated gene
Introducing a new gene to help fight a disease
https://www.precisionnanosystems.com/resources-and-community/training-
education/what-is-genetic-medicine 47
Genome size due to transposable elements
• There are many enormous differences in size in genomes, specially
mentioned before in the multicellular eukaryotic genomes.
• The main reason why there is such a big variety of sizes is due to the
presence of transposable elements. TEs are known to contribute to a
significant change in a cell's mass of DNA.
48
Genomic alterations
• All the cells of an organism originate from a single cell, so they are expected to have identical
genomes; however, in some cases, differences arise.
• Both the process of copying DNA during cell division and exposure to environmental
mutagens can result in mutations in somatic cells. In some cases, such mutations lead to
cancer because they cause cells to divide more quickly and invade surrounding tissues.
• In certain lymphocytes in the human immune system, V(D)J recombination generates different
genomic sequences such that each cell produces a unique antibody or T cell receptors.
• During meiosis, diploid cells divide twice to produce haploid germ cells. During this process,
recombination results in a reshuffling of the genetic material from homologous chromosomes
so each gamete has a unique genome.
49
Genome evolution
• Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may
be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their
products. Researchers compare traits such as karyotype (chromosome number), genome
size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms
could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today.
• Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplication may range from
extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way
to duplication of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are
probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.
50
Genome evolution
• Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often an extreme similarity
between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very
distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among
many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some
genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear
chromosomes. Recent empirical data suggest an important role of viruses and sub-
viral RNA-networks to represent a main driving role to generate genetic novelty and
natural genome editing.
51
