DNA & RNA
I. Introduction
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) are nucleic acids, i.e., they are
composed of long chains of nucleotides. Both possess genetic information and are essential to
the presence of life. DNA is similar to the permanent blueprint, while RNA is a temporary copy
or messenger that helps build proteins based on the instructions of the DNA.
II. Structure of DNA
1. Basic Composition
DNA is double helix—a twisted ladder.
It is made up of nucleotides, each containing:
A phosphate group
A 5-carbon sugar deoxyribose
A nitrogenous base
2. Four Nitrogenous Bases:
They are categorized into two classes:
Purines (double-ring structure):
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Pyrimidines (single-ring structure):
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
3. Base Pairing Rules (Chargaff's Rule)
A always pairs with T (with 2 hydrogen bonds)
G always pairs with C (with 3 hydrogen bonds)
Therefore, A = T and G = C in quantity.
4. Double Helix Structure
Discovered by James Watson & Francis Crick (1953), based on work by Rosalind Franklin.
The sugar-phosphate backbone is antiparallel, i.e., one strand 5' → 3' and the other strand 3' →
5'.
The base pairs make up the "rungs" of the ladder.
III. DNA Functions
1. Stores Genetic Information
DNA holds all the information for building and maintaining an organism.
2. Replication
DNA can copy itself before cell division occurs.
Ensures each new cell gets a full set of genetic instructions.
3. Protein Coding
Individual components of DNA called genes are protein-making instructions.
But DNA doesn't build proteins directly—RNA is helpful.
IV. Structure of RNA
1. Basic Composition
RNA is single-stranded (not double helix).
Consists of nucleotides like DNA, but with certain variations:
Sugar is ribose (not deoxyribose)
Contains Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T)
So base pairs are:
A–U
G–C
2. Types of RNA
There are several types, each with some special role in protein synthesis:
a) mRNA (Messenger RNA)
Conveys genetic code from DNA (within the nucleus) to ribosomes (within the cytoplasm).
Acts as a template in translation.
b) tRNA (Transfer RNA)
Brings the correct amino acids to the ribosome in translation.
Has an anticodon complementary to the mRNA codon.
c) rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
Structural component of ribosomes.
Aids in formation of peptide bonds among amino acids.
d) Other categories of RNA (not too frequently taught in ordinary courses):
snRNA, miRNA, siRNA, lncRNA – aid in regulation, splicing, silencing genes, etc.
VI. DNA Replication
DNA replication takes place in the S phase of the cell cycle. It's semi-conservative; that is, each
new DNA molecule consists of one old and one new strand.
Steps:
Unwinding – DNA helicase unwinds hydrogen bonds, breaking the double helix.
Primer Binding – Primase binds RNA primers for the initiation of replication.
Elongation – DNA polymerase adds nucleotides in the direction 5' → 3'.
Leading and Lagging Strands
Leading strand: Continuous synthesis
Lagging strand: Discontinuous, creates Okazaki fragments
Ligation – DNA ligase seals the fragments.
VII. Transcription (DNA → RNA)
It occurs in the nucleus. This is the process of mRNA synthesis from a DNA template.
Steps:
Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of a gene.
Elongation: RNA polymerase places complementary RNA nucleotides onto the DNA strand.
Termination: When a termination sequence is reached, RNA polymerase separates the mRNA
strand.
???? Note: There is only one DNA strand (the template strand) used.
VIII. Translation (RNA → Protein)
Happens in the cytoplasm, in the ribosomes.
Summary:
mRNA is read in codons (3-base units).
Each codon codes for one amino acid.
tRNA brings the correct amino acid using its anticodon.
Steps:
Initiation: Ribosome binds to start codon (AUG, which codes for methionine).
Elongation: tRNAs transport amino acids, ribosome adds them together in peptide bonds.
Termination: Stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) stops, protein released.
IX. Mutations
Mutations are changes in DNA sequence. Some are harmless, some cause disease, others
lead to evolution.
Types:
Point mutations (one base replacement)
Insertion/Deletion (can cause frameshifts)
Silent mutations (no change in protein)
Missense (single amino acid change)
Nonsense (premature termination codon)
X. Gene Expression & Regulation
Not all genes are expressed at all times. Gene expression is regulated by the cells based on:
Cell type
Environmental conditions
Developmental stage
In prokaryotes, gene expression is typically controlled by operons (lac operon, for instance).
In eukaryotes, it's more complex:
Transcription factors
Enhancers/silencers
Epigenetic modifications (e.g., methylation)
XI. Summary / Key Takeaways
DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids, but their structure and function differ from one another.
DNA contains genetic information; RNA helps translate the information into proteins.
The flow of genetic information is:
DNA → RNA → Protein (termed the Central Dogma of molecular biology).
