Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Biological Molecules: Pentoses, Those With Six Carbons As Hexoses, and Those With Seven Carbons As Heptoses. Examples
Biological Molecules: Pentoses, Those With Six Carbons As Hexoses, and Those With Seven Carbons As Heptoses. Examples
Biological molecules are molecules present in organisms that are essential to one or more
typically biological process such as cell division, morphogenesis or development. The
frameworks of biological molecules consist predominantly of carbon atoms bonded to other
carbon atoms or to atoms of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or hydrogen. Some organic molecules in
organisms are small and simple, containing only one or a few functional groups. Others are large
complex assemblies called macromolecules. In many cases, these macromolecules are polymers,
molecules built by linking together a large number of small, similar chemical subunits, like
railroad cars coupled to form a train. For example, complex carbohydrates like starch are
polymers of simple ring-shaped sugars, proteins are polymers of amino acids, and nucleic acids,
(DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleotides. Biological macromolecules are traditionally
grouped into four major categories: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Biological
molecules include large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates (or glycans as they are often called) include simple sugars (or monosaccharides)
and all larger molecules constructed of sugar building blocks. Carbohydrates function as energy-
storage molecules as well as structural elements. Some are small, simple molecules, while others
form long polymers. Carbohydrates function primarily as stores of chemical energy and as
durable building materials for biological construction. Most sugars have the general formula
(CH2O)n.
Types of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
These are the simplest form of carbohydrates with only one simple sugar molecule consisting of a
backbone of carbon atoms linked together in a linear array by single bonds. Each of the carbon
atoms of the backbone is linked to a single hydroxyl group, except for one that bears a carbonyl
(C=O) group. If the carbonyl group is located at an internal position (to form a ketone group), the
sugar is a ketose; such as fructose. If the carbonyl is located at one end of the sugar, it forms an
aldehyde group and the molecule is known as an aldose, as exemplified by glucose. Because of
their large numbers of hydroxyl groups, sugars tend to be highly water soluble. The sugars of
importance in cellular metabolism have values that range from 3 to 7. Sugars containing three
carbons are known as trioses, those with four carbons as tetroses, those with five carbons as
pentoses, those with six carbons as hexoses, and those with seven carbons as heptoses. Examples
of monosaccharides include: hexoses, fructose, glucose, trioses, heptoses, galactose, pentoses,
ribose and deoxyribose.
Dissacharides
These are organic molecules that are formed when two monosaccharides or two single sugars
form a bond with removal of water. Disaccharides serve primarily as readily available energy
stores. Examples of Disaccharides include: Sucrose, Lactose and Maltose. Sucrose or table sugar,
is a major component of plant sap, which carries chemical energy from one part of the plant to
another. Lactose, present in the milk of most mammals, supplies newborn mammals with fuel for
early growth and development.
Oligosaccharides
Sugars may also be linked together to form small chains called oligosaccharides (oligo means
few). These are shorter forms of Polysaccharides. Most often, such chains are found covalently
attached to lipids and proteins, converting them into glycolipids and glycoproteins, respectively.
The named glycogen is a type of polysaccharide which is a polymer of sugar units joined by
glycosidic bonds.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymerized monosaccharides or complex carbohydrates. They have
multiple sugars. Examples are starch, cellulose, chitin, Glycosaminoglycans and glycogen. They
are generally large and often have a complex branched connectivity. There are two forms of
polysaccharides; digestible and structural polysaccharides.
Digestible Polysaccharides
Glycogen and Starch
Glycogen is a branched polymer containing only one type of monomer: glucose. Glycogen
serves as a storehouse of surplus chemical energy in most animals. Human skeletal muscles, for
example, typically contain enough glycogen to fuel about 30 minutes of moderate activity.
Starch is also a polymer of glucose. Most plants bank their surplus chemical energy in the form
of starch. Potatoes and cereals, for example, consist primarily of starch. Starch is actually a
mixture of two different polymers, amylose and amylopectin.
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose, Chitin, and Glycosaminoglycans
Whereas some polysaccharides constitute easily digested energy stores, others form tough,
durable structural materials. Cotton and linen, for example, consist largely of cellulose, which is
the major component of plant cell walls. Cotton textiles owe their durability to the long,
unbranched cellulose molecules, which are ordered into side-by-side aggregates to form
molecular cables that are ideally constructed to resist pulling (tensile) forces.
Like glycogen and starch, cellulose consists solely of glucose monomers; its properties differ
dramatically from these other polysaccharides because the glucose units are joined.
Importance of Carbohydrates
Fats
Fats consist of a glycerol molecule linked by ester bonds to three fatty acids; the composite
molecule is termed a triacylglycerol. Fatty acids are long, unbranched hydrocarbon chains with a
single carboxyl group at one end. Because the two ends of a fatty acid molecule have a very
different structure, they also have different properties. The hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic,
whereas the carboxyl group (—COOH), which bears a negative charge at physiological pH, is
hydrophilic. Molecules having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions are said to be
amphipathic; such molecules have unusual and biologically important properties. Stearic acid
C17H34COOH
Steroids
Steroids are built around a characteristic four ringed hydrocarbon skeleton. One of the most
important steroids is cholesterol, a component of animal cell membranes and a precursor for the
synthesis of a number of steroid hormones, such as testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen.
Cholesterol is largely absent from plant cells, which is why vegetable oils are considered
“cholesterol-free,” but plant cells may contain large quantities of related compounds.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids Form Membranes
Phospholipids are among the most important molecules of the cell, as they form the core of all
biological membranes. Because phospholipids function primarily in cell membranes, and because
the properties of cell membranes depend on their phospholipid components,phospholipids are
regarded as the basic framework of biological membranes,
Importance of Lipids
Humans need lipids for many vital functions, such as storing energy and forming cell
membranes. Lipids can also supply cells with energy.
Essential fatty acids such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are consumed in food. Both
of these fatty acids are needed for important biological processes, not just for energy.
Although some lipids in the diet are essential, excess dietary lipids can be harmful.
Because lipids are very high in energy, eating too many may lead to unhealthy weight
gain.
A high-fat diet may also increase lipid levels in the blood. This, in turn, can increase the
risk for health problems such as cardiovascular disease.
The dietary lipids of most concern are saturated fatty acids, trans-fats, and cholesterol. For
example, cholesterol is the lipid mainly responsible for narrowing arteries and causing the
disease atherosclerosis.
PROTEINS
Proteins are macromolecules that make up the bodies of organisms. Proteins are polymers
made of amino acid monomers. They are macromolecules that carry out virtually all of a cell’s
activities; they are the molecular tools and machines that make things happen.
Amino Acids
An amino acid is a molecule containing an amino group (—NH2), a carboxyl group (—COOH),
hydrogen atom, all bonded to a central carbon atom. Each amino acid has unique chemical
properties determined by the nature of the side group (indicated by R) covalently bonded to the
central carbon atom. For example, when the side group is —CH2OH, the amino acid (serine) is
polar, but when the side group is —CH3, the amino acid (alanine) is nonpolar.
The 20 common amino acids are grouped into five chemical classes, based on their side groups:
1. Nonpolar amino acids, such as leucine, often have R groups that contain —CH2 or —CH3.
2. Polar uncharged amino acids, such as threonine, have R groups that contain oxygen (or only —
H).
3. Ionizable amino acids, such as glutamic acid, have R groups that contain acids or bases.
4. Aromatic amino acids, such as phenylalanine, have R groups that contain an organic (carbon)
ring with alternating single and double bonds.
5. Special-function amino acids have unique individual properties; methionine often is the first
amino acid in a chain of amino acids, proline causes kinks in chains, and cysteine links chains
together.
Secondary Protein structure: The folding of the amino acid chain by hydrogen bonding into
these characteristic coils and pleats is called a protein’s secondary structure. Two patterns of H
bonding occur. In one, hydrogen bonds form along a single chain, linking one amino acid to
another farther down the chain. This tends to pull the chain into a coil called an alpha (α) helix. In
the other pattern, hydrogen bonds occur across two chains, linking the amino acids in one chain
to those in the other. Often many parallel chains are linked, forming a pleated, sheetlike structure
called a b-pleated sheet.
Tertiary protein structure: The folding of the amino acid chain by hydrogen bonding into these
characteristic coils and pleats is called a protein’s secondary structure. The overall compact 3D
structure of a protein is termed tertiary structure or its fold. It is formed as a result of various
attractive forces such as hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction, and van der Waals force.
Quaternary protein structure: This is formed when two or more polypeptide chains cluster to
form a protein. When two or more polypeptide chains associate to form a functional protein, the
individual chains are referred to as subunits of the protein. The subunits need not be the same.
Hemoglobin, for example, is a protein composed of two α-chain subunits and two β- chain
subunits. A protein’s subunit arrangement is called its quaternary structure.
In summary, The amino acid sequence of a protein is called a primary structure. Hydrogen bonds
form between nearby amino acids, producing fold-backs called beta-pleated sheets and coils
called alpha helices. These fold-backs and coils constitute the protein’s secondary structure. A
globular protein folds up on itself further to assume a three dimensional called tertiary structure.
Many proteins aggregate with other polypeptide chains in clusters; this clustering is called the
quaternary structure of the protein.
Functions of Proteins
1. Enzyme catalysis: we have already encountered one class of proteins and enzymes which
are biological catalysts that facilitate specific chemical reactions.
2. Defense. Other globular proteins use their shapes to “recognize” foreign microbes and
cancer cells. For example antibodies, binds to bacteria and target them for destruction.
3. Transport: A variety of globular proteins transport specific small molecules and ions.
The transport protein hemoglobin, for example, transports oxygen in the blood, and
myoglobin, a similar protein, transports oxygen in muscle. Iron is transported in blood by
the protein transferrin.
4. Support: Fibrous, or threadlike, proteins play structural roles; these structural proteins
include keratin in hair, fibrin in blood clots, and collagen, which forms the matrix of skin,
ligaments, tendons, and bones and is the most abundant protein in a vertebrate body.
5. Motion. Muscles contract through the sliding motion of two kinds of protein filament:
actin and myosin. Contractile proteins also play key roles in the cell’s cytoskeleton and
in moving materials within cells.
6. Regulation. Small proteins called hormones serve as intercellular messengers in
animals.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus. They are made up of smaller units called nucleotides. These are the
macromolecules that contain instructions for proteins and also houses genetic codes for
organisms. Nucleic acids are named for the nucleus of the cell, where some of them are found.
Nucleic acids are found not only in all living cells but also in viruses. Many nucleotides bind
together to form a chain called a polynucleotide.
Nucleic acids are the information storage devices of cells, just as disks or tapes store the
information that computers use. There are two varieties of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA; and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The way in which DNA encodes the information used to
assemble proteins is similar to the way in which the letters on a page encode information. Unique
among macromolecules, nucleic acids are able to serve as templates to produce precise copies of
themselves, so that the information that specifies what an organism is can be copied and passed
down to its descendants. For this reason, DNA is often referred to as the hereditary material.
Cells use the alternative form of nucleic acid, RNA, to read the cell’s DNA-encoded information
and direct the synthesis of proteins. RNA is similar to DNA in structure and is made as a
transcripted copy of portions of the DNA. This transcript passes out into the rest of the cell,
where it serves as a blueprint specifying a protein’s amino acid sequence.
The nucleic acid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) consists of two polynucleotide chains. The
nucleic acid RNA (ribonucleic acid) consists of just one polynucleotide chain.
Nucleic acids are long polymers of repeating subunits called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
consists of three components: a five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA); a
phosphate (—PO4) group; and an organic nitrogen containing base. A nucleic acid is simply a
chain of five-carbon sugars linked together by phosphodiester bonds with an organic base
protruding from each sugar. Two types of organic bases occur in nucleotides.
The first type, purines, are large, double-ring molecules found in both DNA and RNA; they are
adenine (A) and guanine (G). The second type, pyrimidines, are smaller, single-ring molecules;
they include cytosine (C, in both DNA and RNA), thymine (T, in DNA only), and uracil (U, in
RNA only).
DNA
Organisms encode the information specifying the amino acid sequences of their proteins as
sequences of nucleotides in the DNA. This method of encoding information is very similar to that
by which the sequences of letters encode information in a sentence. While a sentence written in
English consists of a combination of the 26 different letters of the alphabet in a specific order, the
code of a DNA molecule consists of different combinations of the four types of nucleotides in
specific sequences such as CGCTTACG. The information encoded in DNA is used in the
everyday metabolism of the organism and is passed on to the organism’s descendants. DNA
molecules in organisms exist not as single chains folded into complex shapes, like proteins, but
rather as double chains.
Two DNA polymers wind around each other like the outside and inside rails of a circular
staircase. Such a winding shape is called a helix, and a helix composed of two chains winding
about one another, as in DNA, is called a double helix. Each step of DNA’s helical staircase is a
base pair, consisting of a base in one chain attracted by hydrogen bonds to a base opposite it on
the other chain. These hydrogen bonds hold the two chains together as a duplex. The base-pairing
rules are rigid: adenine can pair only with thymine (in DNA) or with uracil (in RNA), and
cytosine can pair only with guanine. The bases that participate in base-pairing are said to be
complementary to each other.
The information necessary for the synthesis of proteins is stored in the cell’s double-stranded
DNA base sequences. The cell uses this information by first making an RNA transcript of it:
RNA nucleotides pair with complementary DNA nucleotides. By storing the information in DNA
while using a complementary RNA sequence to actually direct protein synthesis, the cell does not
expose the information encoding DNA chain to the dangers of single-strand cleavage every time
the information is used. Therefore, DNA is thought to have evolved from RNA as a means of
preserving the genetic information, protecting it from the ongoing wear and tear associated with
cellular activity. This genetic system has come down to us from the very beginnings of life. The
cell uses the single-stranded, short-lived RNA transcript to direct the synthesis of a protein with a
specific sequence of amino acids. Thus, the information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, a
process that has been termed the “central dogma” of molecular biology.
RNA
RNA is similar to DNA, but with two major chemical differences. First, RNA molecules contain
ribose sugars in which the number 2 carbon is bonded to a hydroxyl group. In DNA, this
hydroxyl group is replaced by a hydrogen atom. Second, RNA molecules utilize uracil in place of
thymine. Uracil has the same structure as thymine, except that one of its carbons lacks a methyl
(— CH3) group. Transcribing the DNA message into a chemically different molecule such as
RNA allows the cell to tell which is the original information storage molecule and which is the
transcript. DNA molecules are always double-stranded while the RNA molecules transcribed
from DNA are typically single-stranded. Using two different molecules, one single-stranded and
the other double-stranded, separates the role of DNA in storing hereditary information from the
role of RNA in using this information to specify protein structure.
DNA and RNA contain genetic instructions for proteins, help synthesize proteins, and
pass genetic instructions on to daughter cells and offspring.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in
proteins. RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and
help make the protein
DNA is also known as the hereditary material or genetic information. It is found in
genes, and its sequence of bases makes up a code. Between "starts" and "stops," the code
carries instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in proteins.
RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and help make the
protein.
The information in DNA is passed from parent cells to daughter cells whenever cells
divide. The information in DNA is also passed from parents to offspring when organisms
reproduce. This is how inherited characteristics are passed from one generation to the
next.
The order of bases in nucleic acids is highly significant. The bases are like the letters of a
four-letter alphabet. These "letters" can be combined to form "words." Groups of three
bases form words of the genetic code. Each code word, called a codon, stands for a
different amino acid.
A series of many codons spells out the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or
protein. In short, nucleic acids contain the information needed for cells to make proteins.
This information is passed from a body cell to its daughter cells when the cell divides and
also to the sex cells when they divide.
DIVERSITY OF LIVING THINGS
The Kingdoms of Life
All living organism were placed into two kingdoms by Linnaeus. The Kingdom were plants and
animals. This is known as two – kingdom classification. But as biologists discovered
microorganisms and learned more about other organisms, they added kingdoms in recognition of
fundamental differences discovered among organisms. It also could not indicate correct relations
among organisms. So, in 1969, Whittaker proposed the five- kingdom classification which is
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. However, most biologists now use a six-kingdom
system first proposed by Carl Woese 1996. The system of classification is as follows:
The first two kingdoms, Archaebacteria and Eubacteria, consist of prokaryotic organisms,
which are vastly different from all other living things. Archaebacteria are a diverse group
including the methanogens and extreme thermophiles, and differ from the other bacteria,
members of the kingdom Eubacteria.
Four kingdoms consist of eukaryotic organisms. The two most familiar kingdoms, Animalia and
Plantae, contain only organisms that are multicellular during most of their life cycle. The
kingdom Fungi contains multicellular forms and single-celled yeasts, which are thought to have
multicellular ancestors. Fundamental differences divide these three kingdoms. Plants are mainly
stationary, but some have motile sperm; fungi have no motile cells; animals are mainly motile.
Animals ingest their food, plants manufacture it, and fungi digest it by means of secreted
extracellular enzymes. Each of these kingdoms probably evolved from a different single-celled
ancestor. The large number of unicellular eukaryotes are arbitrarily grouped into a single
kingdom called Protista. This kingdom includes the algae, all of which are unicellular during
parts of their life cycle.
Domains
The three domains of organisms are: Archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes.
Their cell walls lack peptidoglycan (an important component of the cell walls of
eubacteria), the lipids in the cell membranes of archaebacteria have a different structure
than those in all other organisms, and archaebacteria have distinctive ribosomal RNA
sequences. Some of their genes possess introns, unlike those of other bacteria.
The archaebacteria are grouped into three general categories, methanogens,
extremophiles, and nonextreme archaebacteria, based primarily on the environments in
which they live or their specialized metabolic pathways.
Methanogens obtain their energy by using hydrogen gas (H2) to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) to
methane gas (CH4). They are strict anaerobes, poisoned by even traces of oxygen. They live in
swamps, marshes, and the intestines of mammals. Methanogens release about 2 billion tons of
methane gas into the atmosphere each year.
Extremophiles are able to grow under conditions that seem extreme to us. They include:
Thermophiles (“heat lovers”) live in very hot places, typically from 60º to 80ºC. Many
thermophiles are autotrophs and have metabolisms based on sulfur. Sulfolobus and Pyrolobus
fumarii are some of the thermophilic archaebacteria that can tolerate a very high temperature.
Halophiles (“salt lovers”) live in very salty places like the Great Salt Lake in Utah, Mono Lake
in California, and the Dead Sea in Israel. pH-tolerant archaebacteria grow in highly acidic (pH =
0.7) and very basic (pH = 11) environments.
Food Products: In the production of bread and other foods, the addition of certain strains
of bacteria can lead to the enrichment of the final product with respect to its mix of amino
acids, a key factor in its nutritive value. Many fermented food products are produced
using bacteria. The comparative economics of these processes will determine which group
of organisms is used in the future.
Drug production: Many of the most widely used antibiotics, including streptomycin,
aureomycin, erythromycin, and chloromycetin, are derived from bacteria. Most antibiotics
seem to be substances used by bacteria to compete with one another and fungi in nature.
Plant diseases: Many plant diseases are caused by bacteria. The symptoms of these plant
diseases vary, but they are commonly manifested as spots of various sizes on the stems,
leaves, flowers, or fruits. Other common and destructive diseases of plants, including
blights, soft rots, and wilts, also are associated with bacteria. Fire blight, which destroys
pears, apple trees, and related plants, is a well-known example of bacterial disease. Most
bacteria that cause plant diseases are members of the group of rod-shaped bacteria known
as pseudomonads
Human diseases: Bacteria cause many diseases in humans, including cholera, leprosy,
tetanus, bacterial pneumonia, whooping cough, diphtheria and lyme disease. Members of
the genus Streptococcu are associated with scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, pneumonia, and
other infections. Other bacterial diseases are dispersed in food or water, including typhoid
fever, paratyphoid fever, and bacillary dysentery.
Mode of Nutrition
Bacteria make use various processes to acquire energy from materials. Living organisms that
synthesize their organic requirement by using light are called phototrophs. Those that do so by
using chemical energy are called chemotrophs. Autotrophic organisms are those that source their
carbon requirement from inorganic matter. Heterotrophic organisms are those that derive their
carbon source from organic matter
Photoautotrophs: These are bacteria that carry out photosynthesis, using the energy of
sunlight to build organic molecules from carbon dioxide. The cyanobacteria use
chlorophyll a as the key light capturing pigment and use H2O as an electron donor,
releasing oxygen gas as a byproduct.
Chemoautotrophs: Some bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing inorganic substances.
Nitrifiers, for example, oxidize ammonia or nitrite to obtain energy, producing the nitrate
that is taken up by plants.
Photoheterotrophs. The so-called purple nonsulfur bacteria use light as their source of
energy but obtain carbon from organic molecules such as carbohydrates or alcohols that
have been produced by other organisms.
Chemoheterotrophs. Most bacteria obtain both carbon atoms and energy from organic
molecules. These include decomposers and most pathogens.
Bacteria Prevalence
They can be found in such environments as soil, dust, water, air, on and in plants and
animals.
Bacteria live in hot springs that would cook other organisms
Bacteria live in hypersaline environments that would dehydrate other cells, and in
atmospheres rich in toxic gases like methane or hydrogen sulfide that would kill most
other organisms.
Some bacteria can survive at very high temperatures of up to 360-degree centigrade or
very low freezing temperatures.
Bacterial Form
Bacteria are mostly simple in form and exhibit one of three basic structures: bacillus (plural,
bacilli) straight and rod shaped, coccus (plural, cocci) spherical-shaped, and spirillus
(plural, spirilla) long and helical-shaped, also called spirochetes. Spirilla bacteria generally
do not form associations with other cells and swim singly through their environments.
ARCHAEBACTERIA
Archaebacteria: Methanogens, thermophiles, halophiles: These arre bacteria that are not
members of the kingdom Eubacteria. They are mostly anaerobic with unusual cell walls. Some
produce methane. Others reduce sulfur.
EUBACTERIA
Actinomycetes Streptomyces: They are Gram-positive bacteria. Form branching filaments and
produce spores; often mistaken for fungi. Produce many commonly used antibiotics, including
streptomycin and tetracycline. One of the most common types of soil bacteria; also common in
dental plaque.
Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria are specie of bacteria that are chemosynthetic i.e. they oxidise inorganic
compounds like ammonia, nitrate and sulphur, then trap the released energy. They are those
bacteria that are photosynthetic and aerobic. They are formerly referred to as the Blue-green
algae. Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll not contained in chloroplasts but located in flattened
membraneous structures called thylakoids. Cyanobacteria exists as different forms as single
cells, chains, filaments or in colonies e.g.Osciallatoria, Scytonema, Cleocapsa, Nostoc and
Anabaena. Some bacteria are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air, or the nitrogen dissolved in
water. They live in fresh water, oceans, on rock surfaces, even in the deserts and cold lakes.
Domain Eukarya (Eukaryotes)
For at least 2 billion years, bacteria ruled the earth. No other organisms existed to eat them or
compete with them, and their tiny cells formed the world’s oldest fossils. The third great domain
of life, the eukaryotes, appear in the fossil record much later, only about 1.5 billion years ago.
Metabolically, eukaryotes are more uniform than bacteria. Each of the two domains of
prokaryotic organisms has far more metabolic diversity than all eukaryotic organisms taken
together. However, despite the metabolic similarity of eukaryotic cells, their structure and
function allowed larger cell sizes and, eventually, multicellular life to evolve.
They vary from the relatively simple, single-celled amoeba to multicellular organisms like
kelp that can be 20 meters long.
Protists possess a varied array of cell surfaces. Some protists, like amoebas, are
surrounded only by their plasma membranes while other such algae and mold are
enclosed within strong cell wall
This kingdom is a group consisting of primary unicellular or colonial eukaryotic
members or very simple multicellular species.
Some of them are motile, some non-motile. The motile ones can move about by means of
flagella, cilia, Axopodia or by forming pseudopodia or false feet.
Some members have chlorophyll while some are non-chlorophyllous.
Protists are the most diverse of the four kingdoms in the domain Eukaryota.
Many protists with delicate surfaces are successful in quite harsh habitats. They survive
inhospitable conditions by forming cysts.
Protists typically reproduce asexually, reproducing sexually only in times of stress. The
most common type of fission is binary, Sexual reproduction also takes place in many
forms among the protists. In ciliates and some flagellates, gametic meiosis occurs just
before gamete formation, as it does in metazoans.
GROUPS OF PROTISTS
HETEROTROPHS WITH NO PERMANENT LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS
Amoebas (Rhizopoda) e.g Amoeba: Move by pseudopodia
Radiolarians (Actinopoda) e.g. Radiolarians: Glassy skeletons; needlelike pseudopods
Forams (Foraminifera) e.g. Forams Rigid shells: move by protoplasmic streaming
B. PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROTISTS
Dinoflagellates (Pyrrhophyta) e.g. Red tides
Euglenoids (Euglenophyta) e.g. Euglena
Diatoms (Chrysophyta) e.g. Diatoma
Golden algae (Chrysophyta)e.g. Golden algae
Red (Rhodophyta) e.g.Coralline algae
Brown (Phaeophyta) e.g. Kelp
Green (Chlorophyta) : Chlamydomonas
NONMOTILE SPORE-FORMERS
Sporozoans Apicomplexa e.g. Plasmodium
KINGDOM FUNGI
The fungi are majorly eukaryotic organisms that are achlorophylous, parasitic,
hyperparasitic, symbiotic and are capable of absorptive nutrition. They comprise of Bread
Molds Rhizopus, Mucor, mushrooms, toadstools and yeasts.
1. Fungi are not photosynthesizers, instead they obtain their food through absorptive
nutrition.
2. They are majorly terrestrial but some are aquatic
3. Fungi have filamentous bodies. Fungi are basically filamentous in their growth form.
Their bodies consist of long slender filaments called hyphae. Hyphae form a mass called
mycelium.
4. Fungi have unusual reproductive mode. Most fungi reproduce sexually with nuclear
exchange rather than gametes.
5. Fungi have cell walls made of chitin. The cell walls of fungi are built of polysaccharides
(chains of sugars) and chitin, the same tough material a crab shell is made of.
6. Fungi have nuclear mitosis. During mitosis in fungi the nuclear envelope does not break
down and re-form. Instead, mitosis takes place within the nucleus. A spindle apparatus
forms there, dragging chromosomes to opposite poles of the nucleus.
Classes of Fungi
Morphology of fungi
1. Hypha(Hyphae)
Fungi exist mainly in the form of slender filaments, barely visible to the naked eye, which are
called hyphae (singular, hypha). These hyphae are typically made up of long chains of cells
joined end-to-end divided by cross-walls called septa (singular, septum).
2. Mycellia(Mycellium)
A mass of connected hyphae is called a mycelium (plural, mycelia). This word and the term
mycologist are both derived from the Greek word for fungus, myketos. The mycelium of a fungus
constitutes a system that may, in the aggregate, be many meters long. This mycelium grows
through and penetrates its substrate, resulting in a unique relationship between the fungus and its
environment.
3. Chitin and Polyssacharides
The cell walls of fungi are formed of polysaccharides and chitin, not cellulose like those of
plants and many groups of protists. Chitin is the same material that makes up the major portion
of the hard shells, or exoskeletons, of arthropods, a group of animals that includes insects and
crustaceans.
Impotance of fungi
Decomposers: Fungi, together with bacteria, are the principal decomposers in the
biosphere. They break down organic materials and return the substances locked in those
molecules to circulation in the ecosystem. Fungi are virtually the only organisms capable
of breaking down lignin, one of the major constituents of wood. Also Fungi can cause
spoilage of food, agricultural products, and also destroy valuable industrial products like
fabrics, leather goods, paper, timber etc.
Pathogens and parasites to plant, human and animal: Fungi are the most harmful pests
of living plants, they also attack food products once they have been harvested and stored
(e.g. mildew, molds). In addition, fungi often secrete poisonous substances known as
mycotoxins into the foods that they are attacking thereby making such foods unpalatable,
carcinogenic, or poisonous. They also cause few human infections and diseases (e.g.
ringworm and athlete foot).
Industrial importance: Various Metabolic products from fungi activities include: ethanol
and carbon dioxide, Cheese and wine soy sauce and other fermented foods, citric acid and
antibiotics, bread, alcoholic drinks, antibiotics. Edible mushrooms are a very good
source of nutrients.
Bioremediation: Some fungi are used to convert one complex organic molecule into
another, cleaning up toxic substances in the environment.
Ecological uses: Two kinds of mutualistic associations between fungi and autotrophic
organisms are ecologically important. Lichens are mutualistic symbiotic associations
between fungi and either green algae or cyanobacteria. Mycorrhizae, specialized
mutualistic symbiotic associations between the roots of plants and fungi, are characteristic
of about 90% of all plants.
Imperfect fungi:,
Sexual reproduction has not been observed; 17,000 fungi
Most are thought to be ascomycetes that have lost the ability to reproduce sexually.
Examples are: Aspergillus, Penicillium
Basidiomycota:
They develop by sexual means;
They form basidiospores which are borne on club-shaped structures called basidia;
The terminal hyphal cell that produces spores is called a basidium;
Asexual reproduction occurs occasionally.
Examples include: Mushrooms and Rusts
Zygomycota:
They develop sexually and asexually;
They are multinucleate
Their hyphae lack septa, except for reproductive structures;
The fusion of hyphae leads directly to formation of a zygote, in which meiosis occursjust
before it germinates
Examples include: Rhizopus and Mucor
KINGDOM PLANTAE
All green plants belong to the kingdom. They are non-motile and are multicellular and
autotrophic organisms. The plantae can be divided into 5 divisions namely:
Thallophyta
Bryophyta
Pteridophyta
Angiosperms Tracheophyta
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms and Gymnopserms are also known as Spermatophyta.
Classes of Plants
Anthophyta Flowering plants (angiosperms)
Pterophyta e.g. Ferns
Lycophyta e.g. Club mosses
Coniferophyta e.g. Conifers (including pines, spruces, firs, yews, redwoods, and others)
Cycadophyta e.g. Cycads
Ginkgophyta e.g. Ginkgo
Psilophyta e.g. Whisk Ferns
Gnetophyta e.g. Gnetophytes
Arthrophyta e.g. Horsetails
Thallophyta
The thallophytes comprise of the green, brown and red algae all of which basically have
chlorophyll, but in addition other coloured pigments are present in the brown and red algae.
Mosses (Bryophyta)
The gametophytes of mosses typically consist of small leaf like structures arranged spirally or
alternately around a stem like axis. The axis is anchored to its substrate by means of rhizoids.
Each rhizoid consists of several cells that absorb water, but nothing like the volume of water
absorbed by a vascular plant root. Some mosses also have specialized food-conducting cells
surrounding those that conduct water. Multicellular gametangia are formed at the tips of the leafy
gametophytes . Female gametangia (archegonia) may develop either on the same gametophyte as
the male gametangia (antheridia) or on separate plants. A single egg is produced in the swollen
lower part of an archegonium while numerous sperm are produced in an antheridium.
Liverworts (Hepaticophyta)
The old English word wyrt means “plant” or “herb.” Some common liverworts have flattened
gametophytes with lobes resembling those of liver—hence the combination “liverwort.”
Although the lobed liverworts are the best-known representatives of this phylum, they constitute
only about 20% of the species. The other 80% are leafy and superficially resemble mosses.
Liverworts are less complex than mosses. Gametophytes are prostrate instead of erect, and the
rhizoids are one-celled. Some liverworts have air chambers containing upright, branching rows of
photosynthetic cells, each chamber having a pore at the top to facilitate gas exchange. Unlike
stomata, the pores are fixed open and cannot close. Sexual reproduction in liverworts is similar to
that in mosses. Lobed liverworts for gametangia in umbrellalike structures. Asexual reproduction
occurs when lens-shaped pieces of tissue that are released from the gametophyte grow to form
new gametophytes.
Hornworts (Anthocerotophyta)
The origins of hornworts is a bit complicated. They are most likely among the earliest land
plants, yet the earliest fossil spores date from the Cretaceous period, 65 to 145 million years ago,
when angiosperms were emerging. The small hornwort sporophytes resemble tiny green broom
handles rising from filmy gametophytes usually less than 2 centimeters in diameter. The
sporophyte base is embedded in gametophyte tissue, from which it derives some of its nutrition.
However, the sporophyte has stomata, is photosynthetic, and provides much o the energy needed
for growth and reproduction. Hornwort cells usually have a single chloroplast.
Most animals have a similar pattern of embryonic development. The zygote first undergoes a
series of mitotic divisions, called cleavage, and becomes a solid ball of cells, the morula, then a
hollow ball of cells, the blastula. In most animals, the blastula folds inward at one point to form a
hollow sac with an opening at one end called the blastopore. An embryo at this stage is called a
gastrula. The subsequent growth and movement of the cells of the gastrula produce the digestive
system, also called the gut or intestine.
Animals are divided into two major groups, the invertebrate (invertebrates) i.e. animal without
backbone and vertebrata (vertebrates) animals with backbones.
The classification of animals into smaller categories is based on features such as body
symmetry, body design and body cavity.
.
Body symmetry: This means that the body has similar or corresponding parts in size, shape and
position on opposite sides of dividing line or median, plane or about a center or axis. Some
animals especially the primitive species are asymmetrical, others are radially symmetrical
meaning the body can be cut along its axis in only one plane to give two identical halves, the
right and the left sides. The terms anterior, posterior, ventral and dorsal are used in describing a
bilaterally symmetrical animal.
Body Design: certain primitive animals have a sac-like body with a single opening (mouth) that
leads to the gut cavity. These animals take in food and get rid of waste through this same
opening. Most animals have a tubular body with a gut cavity opening at the anterior (mouth) and
posterior (anus) of the body. Food is taken in trough the mouth and undigested food is passed out
through the anus.
Body Cavity: When the embryo of an animal is developing, the primary layers of the cells called
the germ layers, differentiate to form various body tissues. The tissues of some primitive animals
are derived from two germs layers, differentiate to form various body tissues. The tissues of some
primitive animals are derived from two germ layers, the ectoderm and the endoderm while those
of most animals are derived from three the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
Two subkingdoms are generally recognized within the kingdom Animalia: Parazoa and
Eumetazoa
Parazoa: Animals that for the most part lack a definite symmetry and possess neither tissues nor
organs, mostly comprised of the sponges, phylum Porifera;
Eumetazoa: Animals that have a definite shape and symmetry and, in most cases, tissues
organized into organs and organ systems. Although very different in structure, both types evolved
from a common ancestral form and possess the most fundamental animal traits. All eumetazoans
form distinct embryonic layers during development that differentiate into the tissues of the adult
animal. Eumetazoans of the subgroup Radiata (having radial symmetry) have two layers, an outer
ectoderm and an inner endoderm, and thus are called diploblastic. All other eumetazoans, the
Bilateria (having bilateral symmetry), are triploblastic and produce a third layer, the mesoderm,
between the ectoderm and endoderm. No such layers are present in Parazoans.
Animals that have three germ layers can be further divided into acoelomate, pseudocoelomate
and coelomate
Acoelomate: are animals without body cavity i.e. no space between the ectoderm and endoderm,
the two are separated by a solid mass of mesoderm
Pseudocoelomate: these are animals with a false body cavity i.e. body cavity is not entirely
bounded by mesoderm
Coelomates: are animals with a true cavity i.e. body cavity is entirely bounded by mesoderm.
Most animals are coelomates because they have a true body cavity or coelom. The coelom is
important because it allows the animal to grow bigger as it provides space for the organs inside
the body to enlarge. Secondly, the fluid in the coelom (coelomic fluid) transports food, oxygen
and waste in the body of the animal.
Mollusca
They have Soft unsegmented body
Their body is divided into three parts: head-foot, visceral mass, and mantle
many have shells; almost all possess a unique rasping tongue, called a radula
35,000 species are terrestrial
Snails, oysters, octopuses, nudibranchs, Clams
They are coelomates.bilaterally symmtrical and their cellula organization is organ/system
Chordata
Platyhelminthes
They have flat body with definite head and tail end
They are majorly worms with unsegmented body
They are bilaterally symmetrical
They are acoelomate
They do not have body cavity
Their digestive cavity, if present, has only one opening
Examples are Tape worm Planaria, tapeworms, liver flukes.
Nematoda (roundworms)
They are Pseudocoelomates with unsegmented body,
They have cylindrical shape and are bilaterally symmetrical worms
They have a tubular digestive tract passing from mouth to anus;
They are tiny; without cilia;
They live in great numbers in soil and aquatic sediments;
Some are important animal parasites
Examples are Ascaris, pinworms, hookworms, Filaria
Cnidaria (Coelentrates)
They have Soft and gelatinous body
They have radially symmetrical bodies whose digestive cavity has a single opening;
They possess tentacles armed with stinging cells called cnidocytes that shoot sharp
harpoons called nematocysts
They exists in two forms: Polyphoid and Medusa
They majorly live in the marine
Examples include Jellyfish, hydra, corals, sea anemones.
Echinodermata
They are Deuterostomes with radially symmetrical adult bodies
They have endoskeleton of calcium plates;
They have five-part body plan and unique
water vascular system with tube feet;
They are able to regenerate lost body parts;
They majorly live in the marine
Examples are: Sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers.
Porifera
They are have asymmetrical bodies without distinct this sues or organs
They have saclike body which consists of two layers breached by many pores
They are filter feeders
Their internal cavity is lined with food-filtering cells called choanocytes
They majorly live in the marine but some live in freshwater
Examples include Barrel sponges, boring sponges, basket sponges, vase sponges
1. Vertebral column. In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced during the course of embryonic
development by a bony vertebral column. The column is a series of bones that encloses and
protects the dorsal nerve cord like a sleeve.
2. Head. In all vertebrates but the earliest fishes, there is a distinct and well-differentiated head,
with a skull and brain. For this reason, the vertebrates are sometimes called the craniates
chordates (Greek kranion, “skull”).
In addition to these two key characteristics, vertebrates differ from other chordates in other
important respects:
1. Neural crest. A unique group of embryonic cells called the neural crest contributes to the
development of many vertebrate structures. These cells develop on the crest of the neural tube as
it forms by an invagination and pinching together of the neural plate . Neural crest cells then
migrate to various locations in the developing embryo, where they participate in the development
of a variety of structures.
2. Internal organs. Among the internal organs of vertebrates, livers, kidneys, and endocrine
glands are characteristic of the group. The ductless endocrine glands secrete hormones that help
regulate many of the body’s functions. All vertebrates have a heart and a closed circulatory
system. In both their circulatory and their excretory functions, vertebrates differ markedly from
other animals.
3. Endoskeleton. The endoskeleton of most vertebrates is made of cartilage or bone. Cartilage
and bone are specialized tissue containing fibers of the protein collagen compacted together.
Bone also contains crystals of a calcium phosphate salt. Bone forms in two stages.
Vertebrates are grouped into five classes: Pisces, Amphibians, Aves, Reptiles and Mammals
Characteristics of Reptiles
All living reptiles share certain fundamental characteristics, features they retain from the time
when they replaced amphibians as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates. Among the most
important are:
1. Amniotic egg. Amphibians never succeeded in becoming fully terrestrial because amphibian
eggs must be laid in water to avoid drying out.
2. Dry skin. Reptiles have dry, watertight skin. A layer of scales or armor covers their bodies,
preventing water loss.
3. Thoracic breathing. Amphibians breathe by squeezing their throat to pump air into their
lungs; this limits their breathing capacity to the volume of their mouth.
4. Examples include: Lizard, Snakes, Alligators
2. Mammary glands. All female mammals possess mammary glands that secrete milk.
Newborn mammals, born without teeth, suckle this milk. Even baby whales are nursed by
their mother’s milk. Milk is a fluid rich in fat, sugar, and protein. A liter of human milk
contains 11 grams of protein, 49 grams of fat, 70 grams of carbohydrate (chiefly the sugar
lactose), and 2 grams of minerals critical to early growth, such as calcium. About 95% of
the volume is water, critical to avoid dehydration. Milk is a very high calorie food (human
milk has 750 kcal per liter), important because of the high energy needs of a rapidly
growing newborn mammal. About 50% of the energy in the milk comes from fat.
VIRUSES
Characteristics of Viruses
Although, the simplest creatures living on earth today that satisfy these criteria are bacteria.
Viruses are however simpler than bacteria that they cannot satisfy the criteria for living. Viruses
possess only a portion of the properties of organisms. They are literally “parasitic” chemicals,
segments of DNA or RNA wrapped in a protein coat. They cannot reproduce on their own, and
for this reason they are not considered alive by biologists. They can, however, reproduce within
cells, often with disastrous results to the host organism. Since they cannot reproduce outside their
host cell some scientists believed that virus evolved after cells evolved. Hence, they are no longer
regarded as the halfway between life and non life. Instead they are viewed as detached
fragments of the genomes of organisms due to the high degree of similarity found among
some viral and eukaryotic genes..
The smallest are only about 17 nanometers in diameter, and the largest are up to 1000
nanometers (1 micrometer) in their greatest dimension. The largest viruses are barely visible with
a light microscope, but viral morphology is best revealed using the electron microscope.
Structure of Viruses
Viruses are so small that they are comparable to molecules in size; All viruses have the same
basic structure: a core of nucleic acid surrounded by protein. Nearly all viruses form a protein
sheath, or capsid, around their nucleic acid core. The capsid is composed of one to a few
different protein molecules repeated many times. In some viruses, specialized enzymes are stored
within the capsid. Many animal viruses form an envelope around the capsid rich in proteins,
lipids, and glycoprotein molecules. While some of the material of the envelope is derived from
the host cell’s membrane, the envelope does contain proteins derived from viral genes as well.
Individual viruses contain only a single type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. The DNA or
RNA genome may be linear or circular, and single-stranded o r double-stranded. Viruses are
frequently classified by the nature of their genomes. RNA-based viruses are known as
retroviruses.
Viral replication
Viruses can reproduce only when they enter cells and utilize the cellular machinery of their hosts.
Viruses code their genes on a single type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, but viruses lack
ribosomes and the enzymes necessary for protein synthesis. Viruses are able to reproduce
because their genes are translated into proteins by the cell’s genetic machinery. These proteins
lead to the production of more viruses.
Viral shape
Most viruses have an overall structure that is either helical or isometric. Helical viruses, such as
the tobacco mosaic virus, have a rodlike or threadlike appearance. Isometric viruses have a
roughly spherical shape whose geometry is revealed only under the highest magnification. The
only structural pattern found so far among isometric viruses is the icosahedron, a structure with
20 equilateral triangular facets, like the adenovirus. Most viruses are icosahedral in basic
structure. The icosahedron is the basic design of the geodesic dome. It is the most efficient
symmetrical arrangement that linear subunits can take to form a shell with maximum internal
capacity. Examples include: Influenza, Mumps, Vaccinia virus (cowpox), T4 bacteriophage,
Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Adenovirus (respiratory virus), Rhinovirus (common cold virus), Herpes
simplest, HIV Virus, Ebola e.t.c.
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. They are diverse both structurally and
functionally, and are united solely by their occurrence in bacterial hosts. Many of these
bacteriophages, called phages for short, are large and complex, with relatively large amounts of
DNA and proteins. Some of them have been named as members of a “T” series (T1, T2, and so
forth); others have been given different kinds of names.