BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Biological molecules are molecules present in organisms that are essential to one or more
typically biological process such as cell division, morphogenesis or development. The
frameworks of biological molecules consist predominantly of carbon atoms bonded to other
carbon atoms or to atoms of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or hydrogen. Some organic molecules in
organisms are small and simple, containing only one or a few functional groups. Others are large
complex assemblies called macromolecules. In many cases, these macromolecules are polymers,
molecules built by linking together a large number of small, similar chemical subunits, like
railroad cars coupled to form a train. For example, complex carbohydrates like starch are
polymers of simple ring-shaped sugars, proteins are polymers of amino acids, and nucleic acids,
(DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleotides. Biological macromolecules are traditionally
grouped into four major categories: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Biological
molecules include large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates (or glycans as they are often called) include simple sugars (or monosaccharides)
and all larger molecules constructed of sugar building blocks. Carbohydrates function as energy-
storage molecules as well as structural elements. Some are small, simple molecules, while others
form long polymers. Carbohydrates function primarily as stores of chemical energy and as
durable building materials for biological construction. Most sugars have the general formula
(CH2O)n.

Types of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
These are the simplest form of carbohydrates with only one simple sugar molecule consisting of a
backbone of carbon atoms linked together in a linear array by single bonds. Each of the carbon
atoms of the backbone is linked to a single hydroxyl group, except for one that bears a carbonyl
(C=O) group. If the carbonyl group is located at an internal position (to form a ketone group), the
sugar is a ketose; such as fructose. If the carbonyl is located at one end of the sugar, it forms an
aldehyde group and the molecule is known as an aldose, as exemplified by glucose. Because of
their large numbers of hydroxyl groups, sugars tend to be highly water soluble. The sugars of
importance in cellular metabolism have values that range from 3 to 7. Sugars containing three
carbons are known as trioses, those with four carbons as tetroses, those with five carbons as
pentoses, those with six carbons as hexoses, and those with seven carbons as heptoses. Examples
of monosaccharides include: hexoses, fructose, glucose, trioses, heptoses, galactose, pentoses,
ribose and deoxyribose.
Dissacharides
These are organic molecules that are formed when two monosaccharides or two single sugars
form a bond with removal of water. Disaccharides serve primarily as readily available energy
stores. Examples of Disaccharides include: Sucrose, Lactose and Maltose. Sucrose or table sugar,
is a major component of plant sap, which carries chemical energy from one part of the plant to
another. Lactose, present in the milk of most mammals, supplies newborn mammals with fuel for
early growth and development.
Oligosaccharides
Sugars may also be linked together to form small chains called oligosaccharides (oligo means
few). These are shorter forms of Polysaccharides. Most often, such chains are found covalently
attached to lipids and proteins, converting them into glycolipids and glycoproteins, respectively.
The named glycogen is a type of polysaccharide which is a polymer of sugar units joined by
glycosidic bonds.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymerized monosaccharides or complex carbohydrates. They have
multiple sugars. Examples are starch, cellulose, chitin, Glycosaminoglycans and glycogen. They
are generally large and often have a complex branched connectivity. There are two forms of
polysaccharides; digestible and structural polysaccharides.
Digestible Polysaccharides
Glycogen and Starch
Glycogen is a branched polymer containing only one type of monomer: glucose. Glycogen
serves as a storehouse of surplus chemical energy in most animals. Human skeletal muscles, for
example, typically contain enough glycogen to fuel about 30 minutes of moderate activity.
Starch is also a polymer of glucose. Most plants bank their surplus chemical energy in the form
of starch. Potatoes and cereals, for example, consist primarily of starch. Starch is actually a
mixture of two different polymers, amylose and amylopectin.
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose, Chitin, and Glycosaminoglycans
Whereas some polysaccharides constitute easily digested energy stores, others form tough,
durable structural materials. Cotton and linen, for example, consist largely of cellulose, which is
the major component of plant cell walls. Cotton textiles owe their durability to the long,
unbranched cellulose molecules, which are ordered into side-by-side aggregates to form
molecular cables that are ideally constructed to resist pulling (tensile) forces.
Like glycogen and starch, cellulose consists solely of glucose monomers; its properties differ
dramatically from these other polysaccharides because the glucose units are joined.
Importance of Carbohydrates

 Glycogen Used by animals to store energy

 They are present in the liver cells of humans
 Cellulose Used by plants to form rigid cell walls
 Plants in cell walls
 Chitin Used by some animal to forms an exoskeleton
  Starch Used by plants to store energy.
LIPIDS
Lipids are a loosely defined group of molecules with one main characteristic: they are insoluble
in water. The most familiar lipids are fats and oils. Lipids have a very high proportion of non
polar carbon-hydrogen (C—H) bonds. This spontaneous assembly of lipids is of paramount
importance to cells, as it underlies the structure of cellular membranes. Lipids are chiefly fatty
acid, esters and are basic building blocks of biological membranes. They consist of polar or
hydrophilic head and one to three nonpolar or hydrophobic fatty acid tails. As a nonpolar
biological molecules, their common properties are their ability to dissolve in organic solvents,
such as chloroform or benzene, and their inability to dissolve in water,a property that
explains many of their varied biological functions.

Lipids of importance in cellular function include fats, steroids, and phospholipids.

Fats
Fats consist of a glycerol molecule linked by ester bonds to three fatty acids; the composite
molecule is termed a triacylglycerol. Fatty acids are long, unbranched hydrocarbon chains with a
single carboxyl group at one end. Because the two ends of a fatty acid molecule have a very
different structure, they also have different properties. The hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic,
whereas the carboxyl group (—COOH), which bears a negative charge at physiological pH, is
hydrophilic. Molecules having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions are said to be
amphipathic; such molecules have unusual and biologically important properties. Stearic acid
C17H34COOH
Steroids
Steroids are built around a characteristic four ringed hydrocarbon skeleton. One of the most
important steroids is cholesterol, a component of animal cell membranes and a precursor for the
synthesis of a number of steroid hormones, such as testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen.
Cholesterol is largely absent from plant cells, which is why vegetable oils are considered
“cholesterol-free,” but plant cells may contain large quantities of related compounds.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids Form Membranes
Phospholipids are among the most important molecules of the cell, as they form the core of all
biological membranes. Because phospholipids function primarily in cell membranes, and because
the properties of cell membranes depend on their phospholipid components,phospholipids are
regarded as the basic framework of biological membranes,

An individual phospholipid is a composite molecule, made up of three kinds of subunits:

1. Glycerol, a three-carbon alcohol, with each carbon bearing a hydroxyl group. Glycerol forms
the backbone of the phospholipid molecule.
2. Fatty acids, long chains of C—H bonds (hydrocarbon chains) ending in a carboxyl (—COOH)
group. Two fatty acids are attached to the glycerol backbone in a phospholipid molecule.
3. Phosphate group, attached to one end of the glycerol. The charged phosphate group usually has
a charged organic molecule linked to it, such as choline, ethanolamine, or the amino acid serine.

Importance of Lipids

 Humans need lipids for many vital functions, such as storing energy and forming cell
membranes. Lipids can also supply cells with energy.
 Essential fatty acids such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are consumed in food. Both
of these fatty acids are needed for important biological processes, not just for energy.
 Although some lipids in the diet are essential, excess dietary lipids can be harmful.
Because lipids are very high in energy, eating too many may lead to unhealthy weight
gain.
 A high-fat diet may also increase lipid levels in the blood. This, in turn, can increase the
risk for health problems such as cardiovascular disease.
 The dietary lipids of most concern are saturated fatty acids, trans-fats, and cholesterol. For
example, cholesterol is the lipid mainly responsible for narrowing arteries and causing the
disease atherosclerosis.
PROTEINS
Proteins are macromolecules that make up the bodies of organisms. Proteins are polymers
made of amino acid monomers. They are macromolecules that carry out virtually all of a cell’s
activities; they are the molecular tools and machines that make things happen.

Amino Acids
An amino acid is a molecule containing an amino group (—NH2), a carboxyl group (—COOH),
hydrogen atom, all bonded to a central carbon atom. Each amino acid has unique chemical
properties determined by the nature of the side group (indicated by R) covalently bonded to the
central carbon atom. For example, when the side group is —CH2OH, the amino acid (serine) is
polar, but when the side group is —CH3, the amino acid (alanine) is nonpolar.

Proteins Are Polymers of Amino Acids

In addition to its R group, each amino acid, when ionized, has a positive amino (NH3 +) group at
one end and a negative carboxyl (COO–) group at the other end. The amino and carboxyl groups
on a pair of amino acids can undergo a condensation reaction, losing a molecule of water and
forming a covalent bond. A covalent bond that links two amino acids is called a peptide bond.
The two amino acids linked by such a bond are not free to rotate around the N—C linkage
because the peptide bond has a partial double-bond character, unlike the N—C and C—C bonds
to the central carbon of the amino acid. The stiffness of the peptide bond is one factor that makes
it possible for chains of amino acids to form coils and other regular shapes. A protein is
composed of one or more long chains, or polypeptides, composed of amino acids linked by
peptide bonds.
Twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic
code and are known as standard amino acids. They include Glycine, Leucine, asparagine,
threonine, histidine, aspartic acid, glutamine, glutamic acid, proline, methionine, cysteine,
isoleucine, alanine, tryphtophan, phenylalanine, serine, tyrosine, arginine, cysteine, valine. These
twenty amino acids are divided into five namely: non polar amino acids, polar charged amino
acids, ionizable amino acids, aromatic amino acids and special function amino acids.

The 20 common amino acids are grouped into five chemical classes, based on their side groups:
1. Nonpolar amino acids, such as leucine, often have R groups that contain —CH2 or —CH3.
2. Polar uncharged amino acids, such as threonine, have R groups that contain oxygen (or only —
H).
3. Ionizable amino acids, such as glutamic acid, have R groups that contain acids or bases.
4. Aromatic amino acids, such as phenylalanine, have R groups that contain an organic (carbon)
ring with alternating single and double bonds.
5. Special-function amino acids have unique individual properties; methionine often is the first
amino acid in a chain of amino acids, proline causes kinks in chains, and cysteine links chains
together.

Types of protein structure

 Primary protein structure

 Secondary protein structure
 Tertiary protein structure
 Quaternary protein structure
Primary protein structure: The particular series of amino acids that form a protein is known as
that primary protein’s structure. This sequence is determined by the nucleotide sequence of the
gene that encodes the protein. This sequence is determined by the nucleotide sequence of the
gene that encodes the protein. This sequence is determined by the genetic makeup of individual.
It specifies the order of side chain groups along the linear polypeptide backbone.

Secondary Protein structure: The folding of the amino acid chain by hydrogen bonding into
these characteristic coils and pleats is called a protein’s secondary structure. Two patterns of H
bonding occur. In one, hydrogen bonds form along a single chain, linking one amino acid to
another farther down the chain. This tends to pull the chain into a coil called an alpha (α) helix. In
the other pattern, hydrogen bonds occur across two chains, linking the amino acids in one chain
to those in the other. Often many parallel chains are linked, forming a pleated, sheetlike structure
called a b-pleated sheet.

Tertiary protein structure: The folding of the amino acid chain by hydrogen bonding into these
characteristic coils and pleats is called a protein’s secondary structure. The overall compact 3D
structure of a protein is termed tertiary structure or its fold. It is formed as a result of various
attractive forces such as hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction, and van der Waals force.
Quaternary protein structure: This is formed when two or more polypeptide chains cluster to
form a protein. When two or more polypeptide chains associate to form a functional protein, the
individual chains are referred to as subunits of the protein. The subunits need not be the same.
Hemoglobin, for example, is a protein composed of two α-chain subunits and two β- chain
subunits. A protein’s subunit arrangement is called its quaternary structure.

In summary, The amino acid sequence of a protein is called a primary structure. Hydrogen bonds
form between nearby amino acids, producing fold-backs called beta-pleated sheets and coils
called alpha helices. These fold-backs and coils constitute the protein’s secondary structure. A
globular protein folds up on itself further to assume a three dimensional called tertiary structure.
Many proteins aggregate with other polypeptide chains in clusters; this clustering is called the
quaternary structure of the protein.

Functions of Proteins
1. Enzyme catalysis: we have already encountered one class of proteins and enzymes which
are biological catalysts that facilitate specific chemical reactions.
2. Defense. Other globular proteins use their shapes to “recognize” foreign microbes and
cancer cells. For example antibodies, binds to bacteria and target them for destruction.
3. Transport: A variety of globular proteins transport specific small molecules and ions.
The transport protein hemoglobin, for example, transports oxygen in the blood, and
myoglobin, a similar protein, transports oxygen in muscle. Iron is transported in blood by
the protein transferrin.
4. Support: Fibrous, or threadlike, proteins play structural roles; these structural proteins
include keratin in hair, fibrin in blood clots, and collagen, which forms the matrix of skin,
ligaments, tendons, and bones and is the most abundant protein in a vertebrate body.
5. Motion. Muscles contract through the sliding motion of two kinds of protein filament:
actin and myosin. Contractile proteins also play key roles in the cell’s cytoskeleton and
in moving materials within cells.
6. Regulation. Small proteins called hormones serve as intercellular messengers in
animals.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus. They are made up of smaller units called nucleotides. These are the
macromolecules that contain instructions for proteins and also houses genetic codes for
organisms. Nucleic acids are named for the nucleus of the cell, where some of them are found.
Nucleic acids are found not only in all living cells but also in viruses. Many nucleotides bind
together to form a chain called a polynucleotide.

Nucleic acids are the information storage devices of cells, just as disks or tapes store the
information that computers use. There are two varieties of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA; and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The way in which DNA encodes the information used to
assemble proteins is similar to the way in which the letters on a page encode information. Unique
among macromolecules, nucleic acids are able to serve as templates to produce precise copies of
themselves, so that the information that specifies what an organism is can be copied and passed
down to its descendants. For this reason, DNA is often referred to as the hereditary material.

Cells use the alternative form of nucleic acid, RNA, to read the cell’s DNA-encoded information
and direct the synthesis of proteins. RNA is similar to DNA in structure and is made as a
transcripted copy of portions of the DNA. This transcript passes out into the rest of the cell,
where it serves as a blueprint specifying a protein’s amino acid sequence.

The nucleic acid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) consists of two polynucleotide chains. The
nucleic acid RNA (ribonucleic acid) consists of just one polynucleotide chain.
Nucleic acids are long polymers of repeating subunits called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
consists of three components: a five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA); a
phosphate (—PO4) group; and an organic nitrogen containing base. A nucleic acid is simply a
chain of five-carbon sugars linked together by phosphodiester bonds with an organic base
protruding from each sugar. Two types of organic bases occur in nucleotides.

The first type, purines, are large, double-ring molecules found in both DNA and RNA; they are
adenine (A) and guanine (G). The second type, pyrimidines, are smaller, single-ring molecules;
they include cytosine (C, in both DNA and RNA), thymine (T, in DNA only), and uracil (U, in
RNA only).

DNA
Organisms encode the information specifying the amino acid sequences of their proteins as
sequences of nucleotides in the DNA. This method of encoding information is very similar to that
by which the sequences of letters encode information in a sentence. While a sentence written in
English consists of a combination of the 26 different letters of the alphabet in a specific order, the
code of a DNA molecule consists of different combinations of the four types of nucleotides in
specific sequences such as CGCTTACG. The information encoded in DNA is used in the
everyday metabolism of the organism and is passed on to the organism’s descendants. DNA
molecules in organisms exist not as single chains folded into complex shapes, like proteins, but
rather as double chains.

Two DNA polymers wind around each other like the outside and inside rails of a circular
staircase. Such a winding shape is called a helix, and a helix composed of two chains winding
about one another, as in DNA, is called a double helix. Each step of DNA’s helical staircase is a
base pair, consisting of a base in one chain attracted by hydrogen bonds to a base opposite it on
the other chain. These hydrogen bonds hold the two chains together as a duplex. The base-pairing
rules are rigid: adenine can pair only with thymine (in DNA) or with uracil (in RNA), and
cytosine can pair only with guanine. The bases that participate in base-pairing are said to be
complementary to each other.

The information necessary for the synthesis of proteins is stored in the cell’s double-stranded
DNA base sequences. The cell uses this information by first making an RNA transcript of it:
RNA nucleotides pair with complementary DNA nucleotides. By storing the information in DNA
while using a complementary RNA sequence to actually direct protein synthesis, the cell does not
expose the information encoding DNA chain to the dangers of single-strand cleavage every time
the information is used. Therefore, DNA is thought to have evolved from RNA as a means of
preserving the genetic information, protecting it from the ongoing wear and tear associated with
cellular activity. This genetic system has come down to us from the very beginnings of life. The
cell uses the single-stranded, short-lived RNA transcript to direct the synthesis of a protein with a
specific sequence of amino acids. Thus, the information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, a
process that has been termed the “central dogma” of molecular biology.

RNA
RNA is similar to DNA, but with two major chemical differences. First, RNA molecules contain
ribose sugars in which the number 2 carbon is bonded to a hydroxyl group. In DNA, this
hydroxyl group is replaced by a hydrogen atom. Second, RNA molecules utilize uracil in place of
thymine. Uracil has the same structure as thymine, except that one of its carbons lacks a methyl
(— CH3) group. Transcribing the DNA message into a chemically different molecule such as
RNA allows the cell to tell which is the original information storage molecule and which is the
transcript. DNA molecules are always double-stranded while the RNA molecules transcribed
from DNA are typically single-stranded. Using two different molecules, one single-stranded and
the other double-stranded, separates the role of DNA in storing hereditary information from the
role of RNA in using this information to specify protein structure.

Structure of ribonucleic acids.

Unlike DNA, ribonucleic acid presents distinct cellular molecular species. Three cytoplasmic
RNAs are known: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA
(tRNA). The three RNA types are single stranded polyribonucleotide chains, which differ in
molecular masses and sedimentation coefficients. Every RNA type exists in multiple molecular
forms. The rRNA presents at least three major forms, tRNA sixty forms, and mRNAthousands
distinct forms. The majority of the cells contain two to eight times more RNA than DNA.
Structure of Nucleic Acids
A nucleic acid consists of one chain (in RNA) or two chains (in DNA) of nucleotides held
together by chemical bonds. Each nucleotide consists of three smaller molecules:
1. sugar(ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA)
2. phosphate group
3. nitrogen base
Nitrogenous bases
The nucleic acids contain two classes of nitrogenous bases: purines and pyrimidines. The two
purines from DNA and RNA are adenine (A) and guanine (G), among the pyrimidines cytosine
(C) is encountered in both nucleic acids. Uracil (U) shows up only in RNA, replacing thymine
(T), which is common for DNA for the chemical structure of these heterocycles.
Nucleotides
Nucleotides are phosphate esters of nucleosides.They are produced when nucleosides are
phosphorylated by specific kinases in the cell. Although several classes of nucleotides exist,
since the phosphate can be at the 2’-, 3’-, or 5’-carbon of a ribonucleotide, or at the 3’- or 5’-
carbon of a deoxynucleotide, the naturally occurring nucleotides are commonly 5’-
monophosphates.Both DNA and RNA are polymers consisting of long, linear molecules
assembled by polymerase enzymes from repeating structural units, or monomers of
mononucleotides. DNA uses the deoxynucleotides CGA and T, while RNA uses
ribonucleotides (which have an extra hydroxyl (OH) group on the pentose ring) C, G, A and
U. Each nucleotide is made up of acyclic nitrogenous base, a pentose and a phosphate groups.
They contain carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus.
Messenger RNA.
Messenger ribonucleic acid contains the four major bases A, G, C, and U. It is synthesized in the
nucleus in the process of transcription. By this process the base sequence of a DNA strand is
enzymatically copied in the chain of mRNA. A small quantity is also synthesized in
mitochondria. The base sequence of mRNA is complementary to the DNA strand that is
transcribed. Messenger RNA from the eukaryotic cells is characterized by the presence at the 3’-
terminus of a long, nearly 200 adenyl nucleotides containing (polyA) tail. This tail protects the
mRNA from degradation, and is also involved in its transport from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
Ribosomal RNA.
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid represents 65 % of the mass of ribosomes. rRNA is obtained from the
E. Coli ribosomes as linear single stranded molecules in three forms, which differ in sequence
and base ratio. rRNA plays a role in polypeptide synthesis. Some of the bases from rRNA are
methylated.
Transfer RNA.
Transfer ribonucleic acids are relatively small molecules, which function as specific transporters
of an amino acid in the protein biosynthesis realized in the ribosomes. Every of the 20 magic
amino acids possesses at least one correspondent tRNA.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
One particular nucleotide all by itself (as a monomer, not a polymer) has a very important role in
all cells. That nucleotide is ATP, adenosine triphosphate, the cellular form of energy often
described as the “energy currency” of the cell or the “molecular unit of currency”. ATP is just
like any other nucleotide except for the fact that ATP has three phosphate groups instead of just
one. The word "adenosine" just represents the sugar and nitrogenous base together (ribose +
adenine = adenosine). ATP is produced in the mitochondria during cellular respiration.
Importance of Nucleic Acids

 DNA and RNA contain genetic instructions for proteins, help synthesize proteins, and
pass genetic instructions on to daughter cells and offspring.

 DNA contains the genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in
proteins. RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and
help make the protein
 DNA is also known as the hereditary material or genetic information. It is found in
genes, and its sequence of bases makes up a code. Between "starts" and "stops," the code
carries instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein.

 DNA contains the genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in proteins.
RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and help make the
protein.

 The information in DNA is passed from parent cells to daughter cells whenever cells
divide. The information in DNA is also passed from parents to offspring when organisms
reproduce. This is how inherited characteristics are passed from one generation to the
next.

 The order of bases in nucleic acids is highly significant. The bases are like the letters of a
four-letter alphabet. These "letters" can be combined to form "words." Groups of three
bases form words of the genetic code. Each code word, called a codon, stands for a
different amino acid.

 A series of many codons spells out the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or
protein. In short, nucleic acids contain the information needed for cells to make proteins.
This information is passed from a body cell to its daughter cells when the cell divides and
also to the sex cells when they divide.
DIVERSITY OF LIVING THINGS
The Kingdoms of Life
All living organism were placed into two kingdoms by Linnaeus. The Kingdom were plants and
animals. This is known as two – kingdom classification. But as biologists discovered
microorganisms and learned more about other organisms, they added kingdoms in recognition of
fundamental differences discovered among organisms. It also could not indicate correct relations
among organisms. So, in 1969, Whittaker proposed the five- kingdom classification which is
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. However, most biologists now use a six-kingdom
system first proposed by Carl Woese 1996. The system of classification is as follows:
The first two kingdoms, Archaebacteria and Eubacteria, consist of prokaryotic organisms,
which are vastly different from all other living things. Archaebacteria are a diverse group
including the methanogens and extreme thermophiles, and differ from the other bacteria,
members of the kingdom Eubacteria.
Four kingdoms consist of eukaryotic organisms. The two most familiar kingdoms, Animalia and
Plantae, contain only organisms that are multicellular during most of their life cycle. The
kingdom Fungi contains multicellular forms and single-celled yeasts, which are thought to have
multicellular ancestors. Fundamental differences divide these three kingdoms. Plants are mainly
stationary, but some have motile sperm; fungi have no motile cells; animals are mainly motile.
Animals ingest their food, plants manufacture it, and fungi digest it by means of secreted
extracellular enzymes. Each of these kingdoms probably evolved from a different single-celled
ancestor. The large number of unicellular eukaryotes are arbitrarily grouped into a single
kingdom called Protista. This kingdom includes the algae, all of which are unicellular during
parts of their life cycle.

Domains
The three domains of organisms are: Archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes.

Domain Archaea (Archaebacteria)

The term archae bacteria (Greek, archaio, ancient) refers to the ancient origin of this group of
bacteria, which seem to have diverged very early from the eubacteria. Analyss of DNA and RNA
of the Archaebacteria made the biologists to conclude that Archaebacteria are indeed different
from the Eubacteria which are the common ones we have around us. Today, archaebacteria
inhabit some of the most extreme environments on earth.

Though a diverse group, all archaebacteria share certain key characteristics.

 Their cell walls lack peptidoglycan (an important component of the cell walls of
eubacteria), the lipids in the cell membranes of archaebacteria have a different structure
than those in all other organisms, and archaebacteria have distinctive ribosomal RNA
sequences. Some of their genes possess introns, unlike those of other bacteria.
 The archaebacteria are grouped into three general categories, methanogens,
extremophiles, and nonextreme archaebacteria, based primarily on the environments in
which they live or their specialized metabolic pathways.
Methanogens obtain their energy by using hydrogen gas (H2) to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) to
methane gas (CH4). They are strict anaerobes, poisoned by even traces of oxygen. They live in
swamps, marshes, and the intestines of mammals. Methanogens release about 2 billion tons of
methane gas into the atmosphere each year.

Extremophiles are able to grow under conditions that seem extreme to us. They include:

Thermophiles (“heat lovers”) live in very hot places, typically from 60º to 80ºC. Many
thermophiles are autotrophs and have metabolisms based on sulfur. Sulfolobus and Pyrolobus
fumarii are some of the thermophilic archaebacteria that can tolerate a very high temperature.

Halophiles (“salt lovers”) live in very salty places like the Great Salt Lake in Utah, Mono Lake
in California, and the Dead Sea in Israel. pH-tolerant archaebacteria grow in highly acidic (pH =
0.7) and very basic (pH = 11) environments.

Nonextreme archaebacteria grow in the same environments eubacteria do.

Domain Bacteria (Eubacteria)

The eubacteria are the most abundant organisms on earth. There are more living eubacteria in
your mouth than there are mammals living on earth. Although too tiny to see with the unaided
eye, eubacteria play critical roles throughout the biosphere. They consist of the bacteria and
blue-green algae. These two domains consist are prokaryotes, organisms with no internal
membrane-bound organelles (and thus no true cellular nucleus). They extract from the air all the
nitrogen mused by organisms, and play key roles in cycling carbon and sulfur. Much of the
world’s photosynthesis is carried out by eubacteria. However, certain groups of eubacteria are
also responsible for many forms of disease. Understanding their metabolism and genetics is a
critical part of modern medicine. There are many different kinds of eubacteria, and the
evolutionary links between them are not well understood. While there is considerable
disagreement among taxonomists about the details of bacterial classification, most recognize 12
to 15 major groups of eubacteria.
Bacteria
General Characteristics of Bacteria

 Bacteria are the simplest organisms living on earth.

 Bacteria range in size from a length of 0.1 to I0 µm and an average diameter of about
0.1µm. Bacteria are the most abundant of all organisms and are the only ones
characterized by prokaryotic cellular organization.
 The most ancient group of organisms that appeared about 3.5 billion years ago.
 They have a cellular structure but cannot be identified either as animal or plant, but they
are often included with fungi.
 Most cells have a cell wall which is different in chemical composition from of plant cells.
 Many bacteria are motile and can move actively about by rotation of flagella which are
structurally different from those of the eukaryotes.
 Most bacteria reproduce by binary fission. The nucleus to cytoplasm ration determines
the optimum size at which a bacteria will begin to reproduce.
Importance of Bacteria

 Ecological importance: The many autotrophic bacteria either photosynthetic or

chemoautotrophic make major contributions to the carbon balance in terrestrial,
freshwater, and marine habitats. Other heterotrophic bacteria play a key role in world
ecology by breaking down organic compounds. One of the most important roles of
bacteria in the global ecosystem relates to the fact that only a few genera of bacteria and
no other organisms have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and thus make it available
for use by other organisms. They are responsible for decay of organic matter and
subsequent recycling of nutrients.
 Industrial importance: Bacteria are very important in many industrial processes.
Bacteria are used in the production of acetic acid and vinegar, various amino acids and
enzymes, and especially in the fermentation of lactose into lactic acid, which coagulates
milk proteins and is used in the production of almost all cheeses, yogurt, and similar
products. Even though they cause disease, they are of increasing importance to humans
because they can be used in many biotechnological processes.

 Food Products: In the production of bread and other foods, the addition of certain strains
of bacteria can lead to the enrichment of the final product with respect to its mix of amino
acids, a key factor in its nutritive value. Many fermented food products are produced
using bacteria. The comparative economics of these processes will determine which group
of organisms is used in the future.

 Drug production: Many of the most widely used antibiotics, including streptomycin,
aureomycin, erythromycin, and chloromycetin, are derived from bacteria. Most antibiotics
seem to be substances used by bacteria to compete with one another and fungi in nature.

 Plant diseases: Many plant diseases are caused by bacteria. The symptoms of these plant
diseases vary, but they are commonly manifested as spots of various sizes on the stems,
leaves, flowers, or fruits. Other common and destructive diseases of plants, including
blights, soft rots, and wilts, also are associated with bacteria. Fire blight, which destroys
pears, apple trees, and related plants, is a well-known example of bacterial disease. Most
bacteria that cause plant diseases are members of the group of rod-shaped bacteria known
as pseudomonads

 Human diseases: Bacteria cause many diseases in humans, including cholera, leprosy,
tetanus, bacterial pneumonia, whooping cough, diphtheria and lyme disease. Members of
the genus Streptococcu are associated with scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, pneumonia, and
other infections. Other bacterial diseases are dispersed in food or water, including typhoid
fever, paratyphoid fever, and bacillary dysentery.

Mode of Nutrition
Bacteria make use various processes to acquire energy from materials. Living organisms that
synthesize their organic requirement by using light are called phototrophs. Those that do so by
using chemical energy are called chemotrophs. Autotrophic organisms are those that source their
carbon requirement from inorganic matter. Heterotrophic organisms are those that derive their
carbon source from organic matter

 Photoautotrophs: These are bacteria that carry out photosynthesis, using the energy of
sunlight to build organic molecules from carbon dioxide. The cyanobacteria use
chlorophyll a as the key light capturing pigment and use H2O as an electron donor,
releasing oxygen gas as a byproduct.
 Chemoautotrophs: Some bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing inorganic substances.
Nitrifiers, for example, oxidize ammonia or nitrite to obtain energy, producing the nitrate
that is taken up by plants.
 Photoheterotrophs. The so-called purple nonsulfur bacteria use light as their source of
energy but obtain carbon from organic molecules such as carbohydrates or alcohols that
have been produced by other organisms.
 Chemoheterotrophs. Most bacteria obtain both carbon atoms and energy from organic
molecules. These include decomposers and most pathogens.

Bacteria Prevalence

 They can be found in such environments as soil, dust, water, air, on and in plants and
animals.
 Bacteria live in hot springs that would cook other organisms
 Bacteria live in hypersaline environments that would dehydrate other cells, and in
atmospheres rich in toxic gases like methane or hydrogen sulfide that would kill most
other organisms.
 Some bacteria can survive at very high temperatures of up to 360-degree centigrade or
very low freezing temperatures.

Bacterial Form
Bacteria are mostly simple in form and exhibit one of three basic structures: bacillus (plural,
bacilli) straight and rod shaped, coccus (plural, cocci) spherical-shaped, and spirillus
(plural, spirilla) long and helical-shaped, also called spirochetes. Spirilla bacteria generally
do not form associations with other cells and swim singly through their environments.

Major groups of bacteria with their characteristics

Bacteria are grouped into two: Archaebacterria and Eubacteria (true bacteria).

ARCHAEBACTERIA

Archaebacteria: Methanogens, thermophiles, halophiles: These arre bacteria that are not
members of the kingdom Eubacteria. They are mostly anaerobic with unusual cell walls. Some
produce methane. Others reduce sulfur.
EUBACTERIA
Actinomycetes Streptomyces: They are Gram-positive bacteria. Form branching filaments and
produce spores; often mistaken for fungi. Produce many commonly used antibiotics, including
streptomycin and tetracycline. One of the most common types of soil bacteria; also common in
dental plaque.

Chemoautotrophs: Sulfur bacteria, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas: Bacteria able to obtain their

energy from inorganic chemicals. Most extract chemical energy from reduced gases such as H2S
(hydrogen sulfide), NH3 (ammonia), and CH4 (methane). Play a key role in the nitrogen cycle.

Cyanobacteria: Anabaena, Nostoc A form of photosynthetic bacteria common in both marine

and freshwater environments. Deeply pigmented; often responsible for “blooms” in polluted
waters.

Enterobacteria Escherichia coli, Salmonella,Vibrio; Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria. Do not

form spores; usually aerobic heterotrophs; cause many important diseases, including bubonic
plague and cholera.

Gliding and Myxobacteria: budding bacteria Chondromyces Gram-negative bacteria. Exhibit

gliding motility by secreting slimy polysaccharides over which masses of cells glide; some
groups form upright multicelluar structures carrying spores called fruiting bodies.

Pseudomonads Pseudomonas Gram-negative heterotrophic rods with polar flagella. Very

common form of soil bacteria; also contain many important plant pathogens.

Rickettsias and Rickettsia, chlamydias: Chlamydia Small, gram-negative intracelluar parasites.

Rickettsia life cycle involves both mammals and arthropods such as fleas and ticks; Rickettsia are
responsible for many fatal human diseases, including typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii) and Rocky
Mountain spotted fever. Chlamydial infections are one of the most common sexually transmitted
diseases.

Spirochaetes Treponema Long, coil-shaped cells. Common in aquatic environments; a parasitic

form is responsible for the disease syphilis.

Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria are specie of bacteria that are chemosynthetic i.e. they oxidise inorganic
compounds like ammonia, nitrate and sulphur, then trap the released energy. They are those
bacteria that are photosynthetic and aerobic. They are formerly referred to as the Blue-green
algae. Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll not contained in chloroplasts but located in flattened
membraneous structures called thylakoids. Cyanobacteria exists as different forms as single
cells, chains, filaments or in colonies e.g.Osciallatoria, Scytonema, Cleocapsa, Nostoc and
Anabaena. Some bacteria are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air, or the nitrogen dissolved in
water. They live in fresh water, oceans, on rock surfaces, even in the deserts and cold lakes.
Domain Eukarya (Eukaryotes)
For at least 2 billion years, bacteria ruled the earth. No other organisms existed to eat them or
compete with them, and their tiny cells formed the world’s oldest fossils. The third great domain
of life, the eukaryotes, appear in the fossil record much later, only about 1.5 billion years ago.
Metabolically, eukaryotes are more uniform than bacteria. Each of the two domains of
prokaryotic organisms has far more metabolic diversity than all eukaryotic organisms taken
together. However, despite the metabolic similarity of eukaryotic cells, their structure and
function allowed larger cell sizes and, eventually, multicellular life to evolve.

Four Kingdoms of Eukaryotes

 Protista or Protoctista
 Fungi
 Plantae
 Animalia
KINGDOM PROTISTA
GENERAL CHARRACTERISTICS OF PROTISTS
Protists were the first unicellular eukaryotic organisms.

 They vary from the relatively simple, single-celled amoeba to multicellular organisms like
kelp that can be 20 meters long.
 Protists possess a varied array of cell surfaces. Some protists, like amoebas, are
surrounded only by their plasma membranes while other such algae and mold are
enclosed within strong cell wall
 This kingdom is a group consisting of primary unicellular or colonial eukaryotic
members or very simple multicellular species.
 Some of them are motile, some non-motile. The motile ones can move about by means of
flagella, cilia, Axopodia or by forming pseudopodia or false feet.
 Some members have chlorophyll while some are non-chlorophyllous.
 Protists are the most diverse of the four kingdoms in the domain Eukaryota.
 Many protists with delicate surfaces are successful in quite harsh habitats. They survive
inhospitable conditions by forming cysts.
 Protists typically reproduce asexually, reproducing sexually only in times of stress. The
most common type of fission is binary, Sexual reproduction also takes place in many
forms among the protists. In ciliates and some flagellates, gametic meiosis occurs just
before gamete formation, as it does in metazoans.
 GROUPS OF PROTISTS
HETEROTROPHS WITH NO PERMANENT LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS
 Amoebas (Rhizopoda) e.g Amoeba: Move by pseudopodia
 Radiolarians (Actinopoda) e.g. Radiolarians: Glassy skeletons; needlelike pseudopods
 Forams (Foraminifera) e.g. Forams Rigid shells: move by protoplasmic streaming

B. PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROTISTS
 Dinoflagellates (Pyrrhophyta) e.g. Red tides
 Euglenoids (Euglenophyta) e.g. Euglena
 Diatoms (Chrysophyta) e.g. Diatoma
 Golden algae (Chrysophyta)e.g. Golden algae
 Red (Rhodophyta) e.g.Coralline algae
 Brown (Phaeophyta) e.g. Kelp
 Green (Chlorophyta) : Chlamydomonas

HETEROTROPHS WITH FLAGELLA

 Zoomastigotes (Sarcomastigophora) e.g.Trypanosomes
 Ciliates (Ciliophora) e.g. Paramecium:

NONMOTILE SPORE-FORMERS
 Sporozoans Apicomplexa e.g. Plasmodium

HETEROTROPHS WITH RESTRICTED MOBILITY

 Water molds (Oomycota) e.g.Water molds
 Cellular slime (Acrasiomycota) e.g.Dictyostelium
 Plasmodial (Myxomycota)e.g Fuligo

KINGDOM FUNGI
The fungi are majorly eukaryotic organisms that are achlorophylous, parasitic,
hyperparasitic, symbiotic and are capable of absorptive nutrition. They comprise of Bread
Molds Rhizopus, Mucor, mushrooms, toadstools and yeasts.

1. Fungi are not photosynthesizers, instead they obtain their food through absorptive
nutrition.
2. They are majorly terrestrial but some are aquatic
3. Fungi have filamentous bodies. Fungi are basically filamentous in their growth form.
Their bodies consist of long slender filaments called hyphae. Hyphae form a mass called
mycelium.
4. Fungi have unusual reproductive mode. Most fungi reproduce sexually with nuclear
exchange rather than gametes.
5. Fungi have cell walls made of chitin. The cell walls of fungi are built of polysaccharides
(chains of sugars) and chitin, the same tough material a crab shell is made of.
 6. Fungi have nuclear mitosis. During mitosis in fungi the nuclear envelope does not break
down and re-form. Instead, mitosis takes place within the nucleus. A spindle apparatus
forms there, dragging chromosomes to opposite poles of the nucleus.

Classes of Fungi

 Zygomycetes: e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus,

 Ascomycetes: e.g. Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Fusarium, Saccharomycese.t.c
 Basidiomycetes: e.g. Mushrooms, toadstools
 Deuteromycetes: e.g. Penicillium

Morphology of fungi

1. Hypha(Hyphae)

Fungi exist mainly in the form of slender filaments, barely visible to the naked eye, which are
called hyphae (singular, hypha). These hyphae are typically made up of long chains of cells
joined end-to-end divided by cross-walls called septa (singular, septum).
2. Mycellia(Mycellium)
A mass of connected hyphae is called a mycelium (plural, mycelia). This word and the term
mycologist are both derived from the Greek word for fungus, myketos. The mycelium of a fungus
constitutes a system that may, in the aggregate, be many meters long. This mycelium grows
through and penetrates its substrate, resulting in a unique relationship between the fungus and its
environment.
3. Chitin and Polyssacharides
The cell walls of fungi are formed of polysaccharides and chitin, not cellulose like those of
plants and many groups of protists. Chitin is the same material that makes up the major portion
of the hard shells, or exoskeletons, of arthropods, a group of animals that includes insects and
crustaceans.

How Fungi Reproduce

Fungi are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction in Fungi

When fungi reproduce sexually, hyphae of two genetically different mating types come together
and fuse. In two of the three phyla of fungi, the genetically different nuclei that are associated in
a common cytoplasm after fusion do not combine immediately. Instead, the two types of nuclei
coexist for most of the life of the fungus. When a fungus reproduces sexually it forms a diploid
zygote, as do animals and plants. Unlike animals and plants, all fungal nuclei except for the
zygote are haploid, and there are many haploid nuclei in the common cytoplasm of a fungal
mycelium. A fungal hypha containing nuclei derived from two genetically distinct individuals is
called a heterokaryotic hypha. If all of the nuclei are genetically similar to one another, the
hypha is said to be homokaryotic. If there are two distinct nuclei within each compartment of the
hyphae, they are dikaryotic. If each compartment has only a single nucleus, it is monokaryotic.
Spores formation in Fungi
Spores are a common means of reproduction among fungi. They may form as a result of either
asexual or sexual processes and are always nonmotile, being dispersed by wind. When spores
land in a suitable place, they germinate, giving rise to a new fungal hypha. Because the spores are
very small, they can remain suspended in the air for long periods of time. Because of this, fungal
spores may be blown great distances from their place of origin, a factor in the extremely wide
distributions of many kinds of fungi. Unfortunately, many of the fungi that cause diseases in
plants and animals are spread rapidly and widely by such means. The spores of other fungi are
routinely dispersed by insects and other small animals.

Three kinds of reproductive structures occur in fungi:

(1) sporangia, which are involved in the formation of spores
(2) gametangia, structures within which gametes form
(3) conidiophores, structures that produce conidia, multinucleate asexual spores.

Types of spores fungal spores

Ascopores borne in the ascus
Basidiospores borne on the basidium
Zygospores borne in the sporangium

How Fungi Obtain Nutrients

All fungi obtain their food by secreting digestive enzymes into their surroundings and then
absorbing back into the fungus the organic molecules produced by this external digestion.

Impotance of fungi

 Decomposers: Fungi, together with bacteria, are the principal decomposers in the
biosphere. They break down organic materials and return the substances locked in those
molecules to circulation in the ecosystem. Fungi are virtually the only organisms capable
of breaking down lignin, one of the major constituents of wood. Also Fungi can cause
spoilage of food, agricultural products, and also destroy valuable industrial products like
fabrics, leather goods, paper, timber etc.

 Pathogens and parasites to plant, human and animal: Fungi are the most harmful pests
of living plants, they also attack food products once they have been harvested and stored
(e.g. mildew, molds). In addition, fungi often secrete poisonous substances known as
mycotoxins into the foods that they are attacking thereby making such foods unpalatable,
carcinogenic, or poisonous. They also cause few human infections and diseases (e.g.
ringworm and athlete foot).

 Industrial importance: Various Metabolic products from fungi activities include: ethanol
and carbon dioxide, Cheese and wine soy sauce and other fermented foods, citric acid and
antibiotics, bread, alcoholic drinks, antibiotics. Edible mushrooms are a very good
source of nutrients.
 Bioremediation: Some fungi are used to convert one complex organic molecule into
another, cleaning up toxic substances in the environment.
 Ecological uses: Two kinds of mutualistic associations between fungi and autotrophic
organisms are ecologically important. Lichens are mutualistic symbiotic associations
between fungi and either green algae or cyanobacteria. Mycorrhizae, specialized
mutualistic symbiotic associations between the roots of plants and fungi, are characteristic
of about 90% of all plants.

The Three Phyla of Fungi

There are three phyla but actually four groups of fungi: phylum Zygomycota, the zygomycetes;
phylum Ascomycota, the ascomycetes; phylum Basidiomycota, the basidiomycetes, and the
imperfect fungi.

Phylum Typical Examples Key Characteristics Living Species

Ascomycota:
 They develop by sexual means
 They form ascospores which are borne inside a sac called an ascus
 They also reproduce asexually.
 Examples are Yeasts, truffles,

Imperfect fungi:,
 Sexual reproduction has not been observed; 17,000 fungi
 Most are thought to be ascomycetes that have lost the ability to reproduce sexually.
 Examples are: Aspergillus, Penicillium

Basidiomycota:
 They develop by sexual means;
 They form basidiospores which are borne on club-shaped structures called basidia;
 The terminal hyphal cell that produces spores is called a basidium;
 Asexual reproduction occurs occasionally.
 Examples include: Mushrooms and Rusts

Zygomycota:
 They develop sexually and asexually;
 They are multinucleate
 Their hyphae lack septa, except for reproductive structures;
 The fusion of hyphae leads directly to formation of a zygote, in which meiosis occursjust
before it germinates
 Examples include: Rhizopus and Mucor
KINGDOM PLANTAE
All green plants belong to the kingdom. They are non-motile and are multicellular and
autotrophic organisms. The plantae can be divided into 5 divisions namely:

 Thallophyta
 Bryophyta
 Pteridophyta
 Angiosperms Tracheophyta
 Gymnosperms
Angiosperms and Gymnopserms are also known as Spermatophyta.
Classes of Plants
Anthophyta Flowering plants (angiosperms)
Pterophyta e.g. Ferns
Lycophyta e.g. Club mosses
Coniferophyta e.g. Conifers (including pines, spruces, firs, yews, redwoods, and others)
Cycadophyta e.g. Cycads
Ginkgophyta e.g. Ginkgo
Psilophyta e.g. Whisk Ferns
Gnetophyta e.g. Gnetophytes
Arthrophyta e.g. Horsetails
Thallophyta
The thallophytes comprise of the green, brown and red algae all of which basically have
chlorophyll, but in addition other coloured pigments are present in the brown and red algae.

 Green algae: Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Volvox

 Red Algae: Laminaria
 Brown Algae: Polysiphonia
Bryophyta
They are the small green plants found in moist places on land, such as wet rocks, logs of wood,
forest floors, swamps etc. Bryophytes are often found with leaves and stems and rhizoids. These
are not true leaves, stems and roots because they lack conducting (vascular) tissue. They are
thought to be the first land plants. They have a life cycle showing Alternation of generation,
namely sporophyte and gametophyte generations. The sporophyte is attached and dependent on
the gametophyte. The gametophytes produces gametes in the sexual phase of reproduction while
the sporophyte produces spores in asexual phase of reproduction. Water is necessary for
fertilization. The fertilized egg (the zygote) grows to form the sporophyte on the gametophyte.
The sporophytes produces spores that develop to form the gametophytes under favourable
conditions.
 Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornworts

Mosses (Bryophyta)
The gametophytes of mosses typically consist of small leaf like structures arranged spirally or
alternately around a stem like axis. The axis is anchored to its substrate by means of rhizoids.
Each rhizoid consists of several cells that absorb water, but nothing like the volume of water
absorbed by a vascular plant root. Some mosses also have specialized food-conducting cells
surrounding those that conduct water. Multicellular gametangia are formed at the tips of the leafy
gametophytes . Female gametangia (archegonia) may develop either on the same gametophyte as
the male gametangia (antheridia) or on separate plants. A single egg is produced in the swollen
lower part of an archegonium while numerous sperm are produced in an antheridium.

Liverworts (Hepaticophyta)
The old English word wyrt means “plant” or “herb.” Some common liverworts have flattened
gametophytes with lobes resembling those of liver—hence the combination “liverwort.”
Although the lobed liverworts are the best-known representatives of this phylum, they constitute
only about 20% of the species. The other 80% are leafy and superficially resemble mosses.
Liverworts are less complex than mosses. Gametophytes are prostrate instead of erect, and the
rhizoids are one-celled. Some liverworts have air chambers containing upright, branching rows of
photosynthetic cells, each chamber having a pore at the top to facilitate gas exchange. Unlike
stomata, the pores are fixed open and cannot close. Sexual reproduction in liverworts is similar to
that in mosses. Lobed liverworts for gametangia in umbrellalike structures. Asexual reproduction
occurs when lens-shaped pieces of tissue that are released from the gametophyte grow to form
new gametophytes.

Hornworts (Anthocerotophyta)
The origins of hornworts is a bit complicated. They are most likely among the earliest land
plants, yet the earliest fossil spores date from the Cretaceous period, 65 to 145 million years ago,
when angiosperms were emerging. The small hornwort sporophytes resemble tiny green broom
handles rising from filmy gametophytes usually less than 2 centimeters in diameter. The
sporophyte base is embedded in gametophyte tissue, from which it derives some of its nutrition.
However, the sporophyte has stomata, is photosynthetic, and provides much o the energy needed
for growth and reproduction. Hornwort cells usually have a single chloroplast.

Bryophyta are made of three classes. They include:

 Liverworts: e.g. Marchantia

 Hornworts: e.g.Anthoceros
 Mosses e.g. Polytrichum, Octoblepharum etc.
Pteridophyta
These are plants that possess true roots, stems and leaves like the flowering plants but produce
spores instead of seeds. Their leaves are known as fronds. They have good conducting vessels in
the roots, the underground stem (rhizome) and fronds. They are shade loving plants found in
damp places. Examples include ferns like Pteris, Nephrolepis and Pteridium, Selaginella,
Lycopodium e.t.c
Gymnosperms
These are plants with naked seeds that are borne on cones. Gymnosperms consist of four groups,
Cycads, Ginkgos, Gnetals and Conifers.
Conifers: these are best known among gymnosperms have needle-shaped leaves and occur
mainly in temperate countries or high altitudes in the tropics. Their woods are commercially
useful for producing timber and the pulp is used in making paper. Examples pines and spruces.
Cycads: these are generally called sago palms are not true palms. They are less advanced than
the conifers. Example is Encepharlartos widely found in West Africa
Ginkgos: these are nearly extinct as there is only one living species in the world i.e. Ginkgos
biloba.
Gnetals: these are the most advanced gymnosperms sharing some characteristics with the
angiosperms.
Angiosperms
These are flowering plants characterized by having seeds that are borne inside a fruit. This
character makes them to be moreadvanced than the gymnosperms. Another difference is that the
xylem of angiosperms often contains vessels but this seldom occurs in gymnosperms.
Angiosperms constitute the largest group in the plant kingdom and are grouped into the
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. Examples include rice, cassava, water leaf, mango, palm,
figs, cucumber, melon, beans e.t.c.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
This is the kingdom of all animals. They are multicellular eukaryotes whose cells have no cell
walls or chloroplasts. Animals are multicellular heterotrophs which are in diverse forms with
active movement. Most animals reproduce sexually. Animal eggs, which are nonmotile, are much
larger than the small, usually flagellated sperm.

Most animals have a similar pattern of embryonic development. The zygote first undergoes a
series of mitotic divisions, called cleavage, and becomes a solid ball of cells, the morula, then a
hollow ball of cells, the blastula. In most animals, the blastula folds inward at one point to form a
hollow sac with an opening at one end called the blastopore. An embryo at this stage is called a
gastrula. The subsequent growth and movement of the cells of the gastrula produce the digestive
system, also called the gut or intestine.

Animals are divided into two major groups, the invertebrate (invertebrates) i.e. animal without
backbone and vertebrata (vertebrates) animals with backbones.

The classification of animals into smaller categories is based on features such as body
symmetry, body design and body cavity.
.
Body symmetry: This means that the body has similar or corresponding parts in size, shape and
position on opposite sides of dividing line or median, plane or about a center or axis. Some
animals especially the primitive species are asymmetrical, others are radially symmetrical
meaning the body can be cut along its axis in only one plane to give two identical halves, the
right and the left sides. The terms anterior, posterior, ventral and dorsal are used in describing a
bilaterally symmetrical animal.
Body Design: certain primitive animals have a sac-like body with a single opening (mouth) that
leads to the gut cavity. These animals take in food and get rid of waste through this same
opening. Most animals have a tubular body with a gut cavity opening at the anterior (mouth) and
posterior (anus) of the body. Food is taken in trough the mouth and undigested food is passed out
through the anus.
Body Cavity: When the embryo of an animal is developing, the primary layers of the cells called
the germ layers, differentiate to form various body tissues. The tissues of some primitive animals
are derived from two germs layers, differentiate to form various body tissues. The tissues of some
primitive animals are derived from two germ layers, the ectoderm and the endoderm while those
of most animals are derived from three the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
Two subkingdoms are generally recognized within the kingdom Animalia: Parazoa and
Eumetazoa

Parazoa: Animals that for the most part lack a definite symmetry and possess neither tissues nor
organs, mostly comprised of the sponges, phylum Porifera;

Eumetazoa: Animals that have a definite shape and symmetry and, in most cases, tissues
organized into organs and organ systems. Although very different in structure, both types evolved
from a common ancestral form and possess the most fundamental animal traits. All eumetazoans
form distinct embryonic layers during development that differentiate into the tissues of the adult
animal. Eumetazoans of the subgroup Radiata (having radial symmetry) have two layers, an outer
ectoderm and an inner endoderm, and thus are called diploblastic. All other eumetazoans, the
Bilateria (having bilateral symmetry), are triploblastic and produce a third layer, the mesoderm,
between the ectoderm and endoderm. No such layers are present in Parazoans.

Animals that have three germ layers can be further divided into acoelomate, pseudocoelomate
and coelomate
Acoelomate: are animals without body cavity i.e. no space between the ectoderm and endoderm,
the two are separated by a solid mass of mesoderm
Pseudocoelomate: these are animals with a false body cavity i.e. body cavity is not entirely
bounded by mesoderm
Coelomates: are animals with a true cavity i.e. body cavity is entirely bounded by mesoderm.
Most animals are coelomates because they have a true body cavity or coelom. The coelom is
important because it allows the animal to grow bigger as it provides space for the organs inside
the body to enlarge. Secondly, the fluid in the coelom (coelomic fluid) transports food, oxygen
and waste in the body of the animal.

(a) Invertebrata(animals without backbones)

The simplest animals, the Parazoa, lack both defined tissues and organs. Characterized by the
sponges, these animal exist as aggregates of cells with minimal intercellular coordination.
Invertebrata are divided into 7 sub-phylum namely: Porifera, Coelentrates, Annelids,
Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Arthropods and Nematodes
The General Characteristic of various invertebrates are as follows:
Arthropoda
 Most successful of all animal phyla;
 They have chitinous exoskeleton covering segmented bodies with paired, jointed
appendages
 Many insect groups have wings
 Joint tail appendages, Chitinous exoskeleton, Specialized Segments and sensory system
Spiny skeleton; System of water canals, tube feet.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, coelomate and their cellular organization is
organ/system
 Examples are Beetles, other insects, crabs, spiders

Mollusca
 They have Soft unsegmented body
 Their body is divided into three parts: head-foot, visceral mass, and mantle
 many have shells; almost all possess a unique rasping tongue, called a radula
 35,000 species are terrestrial
 Snails, oysters, octopuses, nudibranchs, Clams
 They are coelomates.bilaterally symmtrical and their cellula organization is organ/system

Chordata

Platyhelminthes
 They have flat body with definite head and tail end
 They are majorly worms with unsegmented body
 They are bilaterally symmetrical
 They are acoelomate
 They do not have body cavity
 Their digestive cavity, if present, has only one opening
 Examples are Tape worm Planaria, tapeworms, liver flukes.
Nematoda (roundworms)
 They are Pseudocoelomates with unsegmented body,
 They have cylindrical shape and are bilaterally symmetrical worms
 They have a tubular digestive tract passing from mouth to anus;
 They are tiny; without cilia;
 They live in great numbers in soil and aquatic sediments;
 Some are important animal parasites
 Examples are Ascaris, pinworms, hookworms, Filaria

Annelida (segmented worms)

 They are Coelomate with serially segmented body.
 They are have cylindrical shape and are bilaterally symmetrical worms
 They have complete digestive tract
 They majorly have bristles called setae on each segment that anchor them during crawling
 Examples are Earthworms, Polychaetes, Beach tube worms, Leeches

Cnidaria (Coelentrates)
 They have Soft and gelatinous body
 They have radially symmetrical bodies whose digestive cavity has a single opening;
 They possess tentacles armed with stinging cells called cnidocytes that shoot sharp
harpoons called nematocysts
 They exists in two forms: Polyphoid and Medusa
 They majorly live in the marine
 Examples include Jellyfish, hydra, corals, sea anemones.

Echinodermata
 They are Deuterostomes with radially symmetrical adult bodies
 They have endoskeleton of calcium plates;
 They have five-part body plan and unique
 water vascular system with tube feet;
 They are able to regenerate lost body parts;
 They majorly live in the marine
 Examples are: Sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers.

Porifera
 They are have asymmetrical bodies without distinct this sues or organs
 They have saclike body which consists of two layers breached by many pores
 They are filter feeders
 Their internal cavity is lined with food-filtering cells called choanocytes
 They majorly live in the marine but some live in freshwater
 Examples include Barrel sponges, boring sponges, basket sponges, vase sponges

Bryozoa (moss animals)

  They are Microscopic, aquatic deuterostomes that form branching colonies
 They possess circular or U-shaped row of ciliated tentacles for feeding called a
lophophore that usually protrudes through pores in a hard exoskeleton; also called
Ectoprocta because the anus or proct is external to the lophophore
 They live in marine or freshwater
 Examples are Bowerbankia, Plumatella, sea mats, sea moss

Rotifera (wheel animals).

 They are Small, aquatic pseudocoelomates with a crown of cilia around the mouth
resembling a wheel
 They majorly live in fresh water
 Examples are Rotifers

(b) Vertebrata(animals with backbones)

Characteristics of Vertebrates
Vertebrates (subphylum Vertebrata) are chordates with a spinal column. The name vertebrate
comes from the individual bony segments called vertebrae that make up the spine. Vertebrates
differ from the tunicates and lancelets in two important respects:

1. Vertebral column. In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced during the course of embryonic
development by a bony vertebral column. The column is a series of bones that encloses and
protects the dorsal nerve cord like a sleeve.
2. Head. In all vertebrates but the earliest fishes, there is a distinct and well-differentiated head,
with a skull and brain. For this reason, the vertebrates are sometimes called the craniates
chordates (Greek kranion, “skull”).

In addition to these two key characteristics, vertebrates differ from other chordates in other
important respects:
1. Neural crest. A unique group of embryonic cells called the neural crest contributes to the
development of many vertebrate structures. These cells develop on the crest of the neural tube as
it forms by an invagination and pinching together of the neural plate . Neural crest cells then
migrate to various locations in the developing embryo, where they participate in the development
of a variety of structures.
2. Internal organs. Among the internal organs of vertebrates, livers, kidneys, and endocrine
glands are characteristic of the group. The ductless endocrine glands secrete hormones that help
regulate many of the body’s functions. All vertebrates have a heart and a closed circulatory
system. In both their circulatory and their excretory functions, vertebrates differ markedly from
other animals.
3. Endoskeleton. The endoskeleton of most vertebrates is made of cartilage or bone. Cartilage
and bone are specialized tissue containing fibers of the protein collagen compacted together.
Bone also contains crystals of a calcium phosphate salt. Bone forms in two stages.
Vertebrates are grouped into five classes: Pisces, Amphibians, Aves, Reptiles and Mammals

Characteristics of Pisces (Fishes)

From whale sharks that are 18 meters long to tiny cichlids no larger than your fingernail, fishes
vary considerably in size, shape, color, and appearance. Some live in freezing Arctic seas, others
in warm freshwater lakes, and still others spend a lot of time out of water entirely. However
varied, all fishes have important characteristics in common:
1. Gills. Fishes are water-dwelling creatures and must extract oxygen dissolved in the water
around them. They do this by directing a flow of water through their mouths and across their
gills. The gills are composed of fine filaments of tissue that are rich in blood vessels. Blood
moves through the gills in the opposite direction to the flow of water in order to maximize the
efficiency of oxygen absorption.
2. Vertebral column. All fishes have an internal skeleton with a spine surrounding the dorsal
nerve cord, although it may not necessarily be made of bone. The brain is fully encased within a
protective box, the skull or cranium, made of bone or cartilage.
3. Single-loop blood circulation. Blood is pumped from the heart to the gills. From the gills, the
oxygenated blood passes to the rest of the body, then returns to the heart. The heart is a muscular
tube-pump made of four chambers that contract in sequence.
4. Nutritional deficiencies. Fishes are unable to synthesize the aromatic amino acids and must
consume them in their diet. This inability has been inherited by all their vertebrate descendants.
5. Examples include Bony fish e.g.Tilapia, cartilaginous Fish e.g. Shark,

Characteristics of Living Amphibians

They have key characteristics in common:
1. Legs. Frogs and salamanders have four legs and can move about on land quite well. Legs
were one of the key adaptations to life on land.
2. Cutaneous respiration. Frogs, salamanders, and caecilians all supplement the use of
lungs by respiring directly across their skin, which is kept moist and provides an extensive
surface area. This mode of respiration is only efficient for a high surface-to-volume ratio
in an animal.
3. Lungs. Most amphibians possess a pair of lungs, although the internal surfaces are poorly
developed, with much less surface area than reptilian or mammalian lungs.
4. Pulmonary veins. After blood is pumped through the lungs, two large veins called
pulmonary veins return the aerated blood to the heart for repumping.
5. Partially divided heart. The initial chamber of the fish heart is absent in amphibians, and
the second and last chambers are separated by a dividing wall that helps prevent aerated
blood from the lungs from mixing with nonaerated blood being returned to the heart from
the rest of the body.
6. Examplesinclude Frog, Toad, Salamander etc.

Characteristics of Reptiles
All living reptiles share certain fundamental characteristics, features they retain from the time
when they replaced amphibians as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates. Among the most
important are:
1. Amniotic egg. Amphibians never succeeded in becoming fully terrestrial because amphibian
eggs must be laid in water to avoid drying out.
2. Dry skin. Reptiles have dry, watertight skin. A layer of scales or armor covers their bodies,
preventing water loss.
 3. Thoracic breathing. Amphibians breathe by squeezing their throat to pump air into their
lungs; this limits their breathing capacity to the volume of their mouth.
4. Examples include: Lizard, Snakes, Alligators

Characteristics of Birds (aves)

Modern birds lack teeth and have only vestigial tails, but they still retain many reptilian
characteristics. For instance, birds lay amniotic eggs, although the shells of bird eggs are hard
rather than leathery. Also, reptilian scales are present on the feet and lower legs of birds. What
makes birds unique? What distinguishes them from living reptiles?
1. Feathers. Feathers are modified reptilian scales that serve two functions: providing lift
for flight and conserving heat. The structure of feathers combines maximum flexibility
and strength with minimum weight. Feathers are unique to birds among living animals.
2. skeleton. The bones of birds are thin and hollow. Many of the bones are fused, making
the bird skeleton more rigid than a reptilian skeleton.

3. Examples include birds such as hawk, ostriches, fowls, Ducks etc

Key Mammalian Characteristics

Mammals are distinguished from all other classes of vertebrates by two fundamental
characteristics that are unique to mammals:
1. Hair. All mammals have hair. Even apparently naked whales and dolphins grow sensitive
bristles on their snouts. Evolution of fur and the ability to regulate body temperature
enabled mammals to invade colder climates that ectothermic reptiles could not inhabit,
and the insulation fur provided may have ensured the survival of mammals when the
dinosaurs perished.

2. Mammary glands. All female mammals possess mammary glands that secrete milk.
Newborn mammals, born without teeth, suckle this milk. Even baby whales are nursed by
their mother’s milk. Milk is a fluid rich in fat, sugar, and protein. A liter of human milk
contains 11 grams of protein, 49 grams of fat, 70 grams of carbohydrate (chiefly the sugar
lactose), and 2 grams of minerals critical to early growth, such as calcium. About 95% of
the volume is water, critical to avoid dehydration. Milk is a very high calorie food (human
milk has 750 kcal per liter), important because of the high energy needs of a rapidly
growing newborn mammal. About 50% of the energy in the milk comes from fat.

Characteristics of Modern Mammals

1. Endothermy. Mammals are endothermic, a crucial adaptation that has allowed mammals
to be active at any time of the day or night and to colonize severe environments, from
deserts to ice fields.
2. Placenta. In most mammal species, females carry their young in a uterus during
development, nourishing them through a placenta, and give birth to live young.
3. Teeth. Reptiles have homodont dentition: their teeth are all the same. However, mammals
have heterodont dentition, with different types of teeth that are highly specialized to
match particular eating habits.
4. Digesting Plants. Most mammals are herbivores, eating mostly or only plants. Cellulose,
the major component of plant cell walls, forms the bulk of a plant’s body and is a major
source of food for mammalian herbivores.
5. Horns and Hooves: Hooves are specialized keratin pads on the toes of horses, cows,
sheep, antelopes, and other running mammals. The pads are hard and horny, protecting
the toe and cushioning it from impact. The horns of cattle and sheep are composed of a
core of bone surrounded by a sheath of keratin.
6. Flying Mammals. Bats are the only mammals capable of powered flight. Like the wings
of birds, bat wings are modified forelimbs.
7. Examples include goat, Cow, bear, Elephant, Lion, Chimpazee, Squirrel Dog, Man etc

VIRUSES
Characteristics of Viruses
Although, the simplest creatures living on earth today that satisfy these criteria are bacteria.
Viruses are however simpler than bacteria that they cannot satisfy the criteria for living. Viruses
possess only a portion of the properties of organisms. They are literally “parasitic” chemicals,
segments of DNA or RNA wrapped in a protein coat. They cannot reproduce on their own, and
for this reason they are not considered alive by biologists. They can, however, reproduce within
cells, often with disastrous results to the host organism. Since they cannot reproduce outside their
host cell some scientists believed that virus evolved after cells evolved. Hence, they are no longer
regarded as the halfway between life and non life. Instead they are viewed as detached
fragments of the genomes of organisms due to the high degree of similarity found among
some viral and eukaryotic genes..
The smallest are only about 17 nanometers in diameter, and the largest are up to 1000
nanometers (1 micrometer) in their greatest dimension. The largest viruses are barely visible with
a light microscope, but viral morphology is best revealed using the electron microscope.

Structure of Viruses
Viruses are so small that they are comparable to molecules in size; All viruses have the same
basic structure: a core of nucleic acid surrounded by protein. Nearly all viruses form a protein
sheath, or capsid, around their nucleic acid core. The capsid is composed of one to a few
different protein molecules repeated many times. In some viruses, specialized enzymes are stored
within the capsid. Many animal viruses form an envelope around the capsid rich in proteins,
lipids, and glycoprotein molecules. While some of the material of the envelope is derived from
the host cell’s membrane, the envelope does contain proteins derived from viral genes as well.
Individual viruses contain only a single type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. The DNA or
RNA genome may be linear or circular, and single-stranded o r double-stranded. Viruses are
frequently classified by the nature of their genomes. RNA-based viruses are known as
retroviruses.

Viral replication
Viruses can reproduce only when they enter cells and utilize the cellular machinery of their hosts.
Viruses code their genes on a single type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, but viruses lack
ribosomes and the enzymes necessary for protein synthesis. Viruses are able to reproduce
because their genes are translated into proteins by the cell’s genetic machinery. These proteins
lead to the production of more viruses.

Viral shape
Most viruses have an overall structure that is either helical or isometric. Helical viruses, such as
the tobacco mosaic virus, have a rodlike or threadlike appearance. Isometric viruses have a
roughly spherical shape whose geometry is revealed only under the highest magnification. The
only structural pattern found so far among isometric viruses is the icosahedron, a structure with
20 equilateral triangular facets, like the adenovirus. Most viruses are icosahedral in basic
structure. The icosahedron is the basic design of the geodesic dome. It is the most efficient
symmetrical arrangement that linear subunits can take to form a shell with maximum internal
capacity. Examples include: Influenza, Mumps, Vaccinia virus (cowpox), T4 bacteriophage,
Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Adenovirus (respiratory virus), Rhinovirus (common cold virus), Herpes
simplest, HIV Virus, Ebola e.t.c.

Bacteriophages as a representative of Viruses

Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. They are diverse both structurally and
functionally, and are united solely by their occurrence in bacterial hosts. Many of these
bacteriophages, called phages for short, are large and complex, with relatively large amounts of
DNA and proteins. Some of them have been named as members of a “T” series (T1, T2, and so
forth); others have been given different kinds of names.

The Lytic Cycle

During the process of bacterial infection by T4 phage, at least one of the tail fibers of the phage
they are normally held near the phage head by the “whiskers” contacts the lipoproteins of the host
bacterial cell wall. The other tail fibers set the phage perpendicular to the surface of the bacterium
and bring the base plate into contact with the cell surface. The tail contracts, and the tail tube
passes through an opening that appears in the base plate, piercing the bacterial cell wall. The
contents of the head, mostly DNA, are then injected into the host cytoplasm. When a virus kills
the infected host cell in which it is replicating, the reproductive cycle is referred to as a lytic
cycle. The T-series bacteriophages are all virulent viruses, multiplying within infected cells and
eventually lysing (rupturing) them. However, they vary considerably as to when they become
virulent within their host cells.

The Lysogenic Cycle

Many bacteriophages do not immediately kill the cells they infect, instead integrating their
nucleic acid into the genome of the infected host cell. While residing there, it is called a
prophage. Among the bacteriophages that do this is the lambda phage of Escherichia coli