Variation & Selection

Chapter 17: Cell Division

Cell Division
Growth & Reproduction are two characteristics of living things. Both involve cell
division.
Two kinds of cell division
● Mitosis (two cells, genetically identical)
● Meiosis (four cells, half of the chromosomes of original cell)
Mitosis
When cell divides by mitosis, TWO cells are formed. These have the same number and
type of chromosome as the original cell.

Mitosis forms all cells in our bodies except the gametes.

❏ Growth
❏ Replace worn out or damaged cell
Meiosis (Reduction Division)
When cell divides by meiosis, FOUR cells are formed. These have only Half the number
of chromosomes of the original cell.

❏ Meiosis forms gametes.

Diploid & Haploid cells
● Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes. (46 chromosomes in 23 pairs)

Eg: Human body cells are diploid.

● Haploid cells have only a single set of chromosomes. (23 chromosomes from each
homologous pair)

Eg: Gametes are haploid.

Mitosis
Mitosis produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent
cell-both daughter cells have the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent
cell.

The dividing cells must do two things.

● It must copy each chromosome before it divides. This involve the DNA replicating
and more proteins being added to the structure. Each daughter cell will then be
able to receive a copy of each chromosome (and each molecule of DNA) when the
cell divides.
● It must divide in such a way that each daughter cell receive one copy of every
chromosome. If it does not do this, both daughter cells will not contain all the
genes.
Mitosis
Mitosis contains four stages

➢ Prophase
➢ Metaphase
➢ Anaphase
➢ Telophase
(1) Prophase
Original

● 2 pairs of chromosomes Replicated One

(one short pair, one long pair)

● The DNA replicates and the chromosomes form two exact copies called chromatids.
● During the first stage of mitosis (prophase) the chromatids become visible, joined at
a centromere. The Nuclear Membrane breaks down.
(2)Metaphase

Poles

During metaphase, a structure called the spindle forms. The chromosomes line up at the
equator of the spindle, attached to it by their centromeres.
(4) Anaphase

During anaphase, the spindle fibres shorten and pull the chromatids to the opposite
ends (poles) of the cell. The chromatids separate to become the chromosomes of the
two daughter cells.
(5) Telophase

In the telophase, two nuclei form at the poles of the cell. The cytoplasm starts to divide
to produce two daughter cells. Both daughter cells have a copy of each chromosome
from the parent cell.
Mitosis

Cells in the root tip divide by mitosis to allow growth of the root.
Mitosis
● Each daughter cell formed by mitosis receives a copy of every chromosome and
every gene from the parent cell.
● Each daughter cell is genetically identical to the others.
● All the cells in our body (except the gametes) are formed by mitosis from the
zygote.
Mitosis happens more frequently in some regions
● The skin loses thousands of cells everytime we touch something. This adds up to
millions everyday that need replacing. A layer of cells beneath the surface is
constantly dividing to produce replacements.
● Cells are scraped off the lining of the gut as food passes along. Again, a layer of
cells beneath the gut lining is constantly dividing to produce replacement cells.
● Cells in our spleen destroy worn out red blood cells at the rate of 100,000,000, 000
per day. These are replaced by cells in the bone marrow dividing by mitosis. In
addition, the bone marrow forms all our new white blood cells and platelets.
● Cancer cells also divide by mitosis. The cells formed are exact copies of the parent
cell, including the mutation in the genes that makes the cells divide uncontrollably.
Meiosis
● Meiosis forms gametes.
● Meiosis takes place in two stages called meiosis I and meiosis II, resulting in
four haploid cells.
● Each daughter cell is genetically different from the other three and from the
parent cell.
During meiosis, parent cell must do two things.
● It must copy each chromosome so that there is enough genetic material to be
shared between the four daughter cells.
● It must divide TWICE in such a way that each daughter cell receives just one
chromosome from each homologous pair.
Meiosis
The parent cell contains only two homologous
pairs of chromosomes (one long pair, one short).

The number of chromosome is halved and the

daughter cell only contains one pair of
chromosomes.

There are TWO main events during meiosis.

❏ During the first cell division, one chromosome

from each homologous pair goes into each
daughter cell.

❏ During the second division, the chromosome

separates into two parts. One part goes into
each daughter cell.
Meiosis gives genetic variation in gametes
Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis

All the cells in our bodies (except gametes) are formed by mitosis.
Gametes are formed by meiosis.
Sexual Reproduction & Variation
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two gametes to form zygote.

The offspring form sexual reproduction vary genetically for a number of reasons.

Reasons

● There are huge variation in the gametes.

● Radom way in which fertilization takes place. (In humans, any one of the billions
of sperm formed by a male during his life could potentially fertilise any one of the
thousands of ova formed by a female).
An Example
The variation applies to both male and female gametes. So, just using our ‘low’ estimate
of about 8.5 million different types of human gametes means that there can be 8.5
million different types of sperms and 8.5 million different types of ova.

● When fertilization takes place, any sperm could fertilise any ovum.

So, the number of possible combinations of chromosomes and genes in the zygote is

● 8.5 million ✕ 8.5 million = 7.2 ✕ 1013 or 72 trillion

Identical twins

Every individual is likely to be genetically unique.

Exception: Identical twins (monozygotic twins) are formed from the same zygote. They
are genetically identical.
How monozygotic twins
are formed..

When the zygote divides by mitosis, the two

genetically identical cells formed do not stay together.
Instead, they separate and each cell behaves as though
it were an individual zygote, dividing and developing
into an embryo.

Because they have developed from genetically

identical cells, the embryos (and later the children and
adults they become) will be genetically identical.
Non identical twins

Non identical twins develop from

the different zygotes and so are
not genetically identical.
Seeds are made by sexual reproduction
Seeds are made by sexual reproduction in plants.

Each seed contains an embryo which results from pollen grain nucleus + egg cell
nucleus.

● Embryos from the same plant will vary genetically because they are formed by
different pollen grains fertilising different egg cells and so contain different
combination of genes.
Asexual reprodction & Cloning
Plant breeders realised that if a plant had some desirable features,the best way to get
more of that plant is to clone it in some way.

Cloning is a process that produces a group of genetically identical offspring (a clone)

from part of the parent organism. Gametes are not involved.

● Asexual reproduction

When organisms reproduce asexually, there is no fusion of gametes. A part of the

organism grows (by mitosis) and somehow breaks away from the parent organism.
Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent
and genetically identical to each other.

Asexual reproduction occurs in both plants and animals.

Genes and environment both produce variation

● Tall pea plants

● Short pea plants
● No intermediate height pea plants

However, all the tall pea plants are not

exactly the same height and neither are all
the short pea plants exactly the same
height.
Environmental factors influence the height of
the plants
❏ They may not all receive the same amount of light and so some will not
photosynthesise as well as others.
❏ They may not all receive the same amount of water and mineral ions from the soil-
this could affect the manufacture of a range of substances in the plant.
❏ They may not all receive the same amount of carbon dioxide. Again, some plants
will not photosynthesise as well as others.
Environmental factors influence humans
Identical twins have the same genes and often grow up to look very alike (although not
quite identical). Also they often develop similar talents.

However, identical twins never look exactly the same. They grow up apart. The different
environments affect their physical, social and intellectual development in different ways.