Section C – Heredity and variation

10 Cell division and variation

Cells contain all the information they need to control their activities coded as genetic information
in their genes. These genes are passed on to new cells during cell division. Living organisms show
variation and much of this variation is passed on from one generation to the next via genes.
An introduction to chromosomes and genes
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are present in the nuclei of all living cells. Each chromosome is composed of a single
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule wrapped around proteins called histones. DNA molecules contain
genetic information in the form of genes. In any cell that is not dividing, chromosomes exist as long, thin
strands known as chromatin threads, which are spread throughout the nucleus. Chromosomes become
visible when a cell begins to divide, due to them becoming shorter and thicker.
Chromosomes are passed on from one generation to the next in gametes and each species has
a distinctive number of chromosomes per body cell; every human cell has 46 chromosomes. The
number of chromosomes in each cell is known as the diploid number or 2n number. Chromosomes
exist in pairs known as homologous pairs. Every human cell has 23 pairs, one member of each pair
being of maternal origin and the other of paternal origin. With the exception of the pair of sex
chromosomes, members of each homologous pair are similar in shape, size and genetic composition.
Genes
Genes are specific sections of chromosomal DNA molecules and are the basic units of heredity. Each
human body cell has over 30 000 genes and each gene controls a particular characteristic. Genes
work by controlling the production of proteins in cells, mainly the production of enzymes. Each gene
controls the production of a specific protein.
All the cells of one individual contain an identical combination of genes. It is this combination which
makes each individual unique since no two individuals, except identical twins or organisms produced
asexually, have the same combination of genes. Within any cell some genes are active while others
are inactive, e.g. in a nerve cell, genes controlling the activity of the nerve cell are active and genes
that would control the activity of a muscle cell are inactive.
Cell division
When a cell divides, chromosomes with their genes are passed on to the cells produced, known as
daughter cells. There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in the formation of two daughter cells, each with the
same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Mitosis occurs in all body (somatic) cells except in the formation of gametes. During mitosis, two
genetically identical cells are formed. Each cell contains the diploid number of chromosomes. All cells
produced by mitosis from a single parent cell are collectively called a clone.
Mitosis is important because:
• It ensures that each daughter cell has the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• It ensures that each daughter cell has an identical combination of genes.
• It is the method by which all cells of a multicellular organism are formed, hence it is essential for
growth and to repair damaged tissues.
• It is the method by which organisms reproduce asexually, forming offspring that are identical to
each other and to the parent.
102 10 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology
 nuclear membrane When the cell is not dividing,
the chromosomes are not visible;
centrioles they exist as long, thin strands
called chromatin threads
chromatin threads
composed of DNA

centromere The chromosomes shorten, thicken,

duplicate themselves and become visible;
two chromatids each consists of two identical chromatids
joined at the centromere. The centrioles
separate forming spindle fibres between them
spindle fibres

centromere – attached The nuclear membrane disintegrates

to the equator of the spindle and a spindle forms between the centrioles.
The chromatid pairs line up around the
equator of the spindle
spindle fibres

The centromeres split and the spindle fibres

chromatids separating pull the chromatids, by their centromeres,
to opposite poles of the cell

spindle fibres The chromatids reach the opposite

disintegrate poles and are now called chromosomes.
The spindle fibres disintegrate, and the
chromosomes cell constricts at the equator

A nuclear membrane forms around

new cell membranes each group of chromosomes. The cell
form divides forming two, identical daughter
cells each with the diploid number of
chromosomes. The chromosomes then
become long and thin so they are no
longer visible

Figure 10.1 The process of mitosis in an animal cell with four chromosomes; two of paternal origin
(blue) and two of maternal origin (red)
Meiosis (reduction division)
Meiosis is the type of cell division that results in the formation of four daughter cells, each with half
the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Meiosis occurs only in the reproductive organs during the production of gametes. During meiosis,
four genetically non-identical cells are formed. Each cell contains the haploid number or n number of
chromosomes, i.e. half the diploid number.
10 Cell division and variation 103
 Meiosis is important because it ensures that:
• Each daughter cell or gamete has the haploid number of chromosomes. The diploid number can
then be restored at fertilisation.
• Each daughter cell or gamete has a different combination of genes. This leads to variation among
offspring (see page 105).
two chromosomes nuclear membrane
of maternal origin
centrioles The chromosomes
shorten, thicken and The centrioles in each cell separate
become visible forming two new spindles at right angles
two chromosomes to the first spindle
of paternal origin
pair of homologous
centromere chromosomes forming
a bivalent
The homologous
centrioles chromosomes pair forming
separating bivalents. The centrioles
separate forming spindle
fibres between
nuclear membrane The nuclear membranes disappear. The
chromosomes, each composed of two
chromatids, line up around the equators
of the spindles
crossover point Each chromosome
duplicates itself forming
two chromatids joined by
spindle fibres a centromere. Adjacent
chromatids cross over
each other chromatids
separating
The nuclear membrane
spindle disappears and the The centromeres split, and the spindle
bivalents arrange fibres pull the chromatids to opposite
themselves around the poles of the cells
exchanged equator of the spindle.
segments of The chromatids break at
crossed over the crossover points and
chromatids rejoin with opposite
chromatids thus
exchanging genetic
material
The homologous The chromatids reach the opposite poles
chromosomes of the of the cells and are now called
bivalents bivalents separate and chromosomes. The spindle fibres
separating the spindle fibres pull the disintegrate. A nuclear membrane forms
chromosomes, each around each group of chromosomes and
composed of two each cell divides. Four daughter cells are
chromatids, to opposite formed, each with the haploid number of
poles of the cell chromosomes whose compositions are
different. The chromosomes then
become long and thin, so they are no
longer visible
A nuclear membrane
forms around each group
of chromosomes. The
spindle fibres disintegrate
and the centrioles divide.
The cell constricts at the
equator forming two cells

Figure 10.2 The process of meiosis in an animal cell with four chromosomes

104 10 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

 immature ovum 2n 2n cell in the wall of a
in an ovary seminiferous tubule
in the testis
meiosis meiosis

n n sperm cells
one cell develops n n
into a mature ovum n n n
n fertilisation

2n a zygote
mitosis

2n 2n an embryo composed
of two cells
mitosis
an embryo composed of
2n 2n four cells – by mitosis
2n 2n continuing; an adult is eventually
formed with all cells containing the
2n number of chromosomes

Figure 10.3 The relationship between mitosis and meiosis

Variation
No two living organisms are exactly alike, not even identical twins. Variation refers to the differences
that exist between individuals and it arises from a combination of genetic causes and environmental
causes.
The observable characteristics of an individual make up the individual’s phenotype, and the composition
of genes within the cells of an individual makes up the individual’s genotype. The phenotype of an
individual is determined by his or her genotype and the influences of his or her environment:
phenotype = genotype + environmental influences
Genetic and environmental causes of variation
Genetic variation
Genetic variation is controlled by genes and can be passed on from one generation to the next, i.e. it
can be inherited. It arises in several ways:
• Meiosis. Every gamete produced by meiosis has a different combination of genes as a result of:
Chromatids of homologous chromosomes crossing over and exchanging genes.
Chromosomes arranging themselves around the equators of the spindles in totally random ways.
• Sexual reproduction. During fertilisation, male and female gametes fuse in completely random ways
to create a different combination of genes in each zygote.
• Mutations. A mutation is a change in the structure of a single gene, the structure of part of a
chromosome containing several genes or in the number of chromosomes in a cell. Mutations cause
new characteristics to develop in organisms. Mutations occurring in body cells cannot be inherited,
whereas mutations occurring in a gamete or zygote can be inherited. Many mutations are harmful;
however, a few produce beneficial characteristics which help the organism survive. Examples of
mutations include:
Albinism, which is caused by a mutation in a gene controlling the production of melanin. People
with albinism produce very little or no melanin in their skin, eyes and hair (see page 108).

10 Cell division and variation 105

 Down’s syndrome, which occurs when an individual has an extra chromosome 21 in each of their
cells because pair 21 fails to separate properly during meiosis and both chromosomes pass into
one gamete. Individuals with Down’s syndrome usually have flattened facial features, a short
wide neck, small ears, a bulging tongue, slanted eyes, short stocky arms and legs, poor muscle
tone and slow learning capabilities.
Antibiotic resistance, which can arise in bacteria from a mutation occurring in some bacterial cells
that makes them resistant to certain antibiotics. When exposed to these antibiotics, the resistant
organisms are more likely to survive and reproduce than the non-resistant ones, passing their
resistance on to the next generation.
Environmental variation
Environmental variation is caused by different factors in an organism’s environment. It is not caused
by genes and cannot be passed on from one generation to the next. Environmental factors affecting
humans include:
• The type and quantity of food they eat.
• The diseases they suffer from.
• The drugs they take.
• The climate they are exposed to, especially the amount of sunlight.
• Their upbringing and living conditions.
• The education they receive.
• The amount of exercise they get and their daily activities.
Continuous and discontinuous variation
There are two basic types of variation within a species: continuous variation and
discontinuous variation.
Continuous variation
Continuous variation is where characteristics show
continuous gradation from one extreme to the other without
slaudividni fo rebmun

a break. Most individuals usually fall in the middle of the

range with fewer at the two extremes, i.e. the characteristics mean height
show a normal distribution. Examples include height,
weight, foot size, hand span, hair colour, skin colour
and intelligence.
Characteristics showing continuous variation are
usually controlled by many genes and can be affected by height
environmental factors.
Figure 10.4 A normal distribution
Discontinuous variation curve showing height
Discontinuous variation is where characteristics show clear cut differences with no intermediates.
Individuals can be divided into distinct categories. Examples include gender, ABO blood groups,
rhesus blood groups and tongue-rolling ability. Characteristics showing discontinuous variation are
usually controlled by a single gene and environmental factors have little, if any, influence on them.

106 10 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

The importance of variation to living organisms
Within any species, individuals with variations that make them best suited to their environment
have a better chance of survival than the others. More of these individuals will survive to reproduce
and when they do, they pass on the genetic information for their beneficial characteristics to their
offspring. This process is known as natural selection. Over time, this enables species to remain well
adapted to their environment or to gradually change and improve by becoming better adapted, i.e.
it enables species to evolve. For example, some species of bacteria have become resistant to almost
all commonly available antibiotics, enabling them to survive when antibiotics are used to treat a
bacterial infection.
Revision questions
1 Define the following terms:
a mitosis b meiosis
2 Outline the process of mitosis.
3 Give THREE reasons why mitosis is important to living organisms.
4 In what ways does meiosis differ from mitosis?
5 Give TWO reasons why meiosis is important to living organisms.
6 Distinguish between genetic and environmental variation.
7 a What is a mutation?
b By reference to albinism and Down’s syndrome, explain how mutations cause
variation.
8 Identify FOUR environmental factors that can cause variation in humans.
9 Outline the differences between continuous and discontinuous variation.
100 Explain why variation is important to living organisms. Support your answer by
referring to antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

10 Cell division and variation 107

 11 Inheritance and genetic
engineering
The branch of science which seeks to understand how characteristics are passed on from one
generation to the next is known as genetics. For over 200 years humans have selected and crossed
plants and animals to produce improved varieties due to the mixing of genetic material. Since the
structure of DNA was discovered in 1953, gene technology has moved at an ever-increasing pace to
improve food production and the production of medicinal drugs.
Monohybrid inheritance
Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of a single characteristic. Like chromosomes, genes exist in
pairs. One gene of each pair is of maternal origin and one is of paternal origin, and the pairs occupy
equivalent positions on homologous chromosomes. A gene controlling a particular characteristic can
have different forms known as alleles. Each gene usually has two different alleles.
Example: albinism
People with albinism produce very little or no melanin in their skin, eyes and hair. The gene
controlling the production of the pigment melanin has two different alleles which can be represented
using letters:
• N stimulates melanin production
• n fails to stimulate melanin production
The allele stimulating melanin production, N, is dominant, i.e. if it is present it shows its effect on the
phenotype. The allele for albinism, n, is recessive, i.e. it only has an effect on the phenotype if there is
no dominant allele present. Three combinations of these alleles are possible; NN, Nn and nn. If the
two alleles are the same, the organism is said to be homozygous. If the two alleles are different, the
organism is said to be heterozygous. Heterozygous individuals are carriers because they can pass on a
recessive allele.
Table 11.1 Possible combinations of the alleles controlling melanin production
Genotype How the alleles appear on Phenotype (appearance)
(combination of alleles) homologous chromosomes
NN N Normal pigmentation of the skin, eyes
Homozygous dominant and hair
(pure breeding) N
Nn N Normal pigmentation of the skin, eyes
Heterozygous (carrier) and hair
n
nn n Albino – very pale skin that does not tan,
Homozygous recessive white or light blond hair and very pale
(pure breeding) blue eyes
n

Gametes produced in meiosis contain only one chromosome from each homologous pair. As a result,
they contain only one allele from each pair. When fertilisation occurs, chromosomes and the alleles
they carry recombine to form pairs in the zygote.

108 11 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

Results of possible crosses
1 If one parent is homozygous dominant and one is homozygous recessive:
Parental phenotypes normal pigmentation albino
Parental genotypes (2n) NN nn
Gametes (n) N N n n

Random fertilisation

First filial generation (F1) genotypes Nn Nn Nn Nn

First filial generation (F1) phenotypes normal pigmentation
All the offspring have normal pigmentation

2 If one parent is heterozygous and one is homozygous recessive, showing the use of a Punnett square
to predict the outcome of the cross:
Parental phenotypes normal pigmentation albino
Parental genotypes Nn nn
Gametes N n n n

gametes n n
Random fertilisation N Nn Nn
n nn nn
F1 genotypes Nn Nn nn nn
F1 phenotypes normal pigmentation albino
50% of the offspring have normal pigmentation
50% of the offspring have albinism

3 If both parents are heterozygous, i.e. carriers:

Parental phenotypes normal pigmentation normal pigmentation
Parental genotypes Nn Nn
Gametes N n N n

gametes N n
Random fertilisation N NN Nn
n Nn nn
F1 genotypes NN Nn Nn nn
F1 phenotypes normal pigmentation albino
75% of the offspring have normal pigmentation
25% of the offspring have albinism

Co-dominance
Sometimes neither allele dominates the other, such that the influence of both alleles is visible in the
heterozygous individual. These alleles show co-dominance. Examples include sickle cell anaemia and
ABO blood groups.
11 Inheritance and genetic engineering 109
 Sickle cell anaemia
The blood of a person with sickle cell anaemia contains abnormal haemoglobin S instead of normal
haemoglobin A. The disease is caused by an abnormal allele. The normal allele HbA stimulates the
production of normal haemoglobin A, the abnormal allele HbS stimulates the production of abnormal
haemoglobin S. These alleles show co-dominance.
Table 11.2 Possible combinations of alleles controlling haemoglobin production
Genotype Haemoglobin produced Phenotype
HbA HbA 100% haemoglobin A Normal.
Hb Hb
A S 55–65% haemoglobin A Sickle cell trait. Usually no symptoms. Symptoms of
35–45% haemoglobin S sickle cell anaemia may develop in very low oxygen
concentrations, e.g. at high altitude or during
extreme physical exercise. People with the trait are
resistant to malaria.
Hb Hb
S S 100% haemoglobin S Sickle cell anaemia. Symptoms of sickle cell anaemia
develop which include painful crises, anaemia,
increased vulnerability to infections and jaundice.
For example, if both parents have sickle cell trait:
Parental phenotypes sickle cell trait sickle cell trait
Parental genotypes HbAHbS HbAHbS
Gametes HbA HbS HbA HbS

gametes HbA HbS

Random fertilisation HbA HbAHbA HbAHbS

HbS HbAHbS HbSHbS

F1 genotypes HbAHbA HbAHbS HbAHbS HbSHbS

F1 phenotypes normal sickle cell trait sickle cell anaemia

25% of the offspring are normal
50% of the offspring have the sickle cell trait
25% of the offspring have sickle cell anaemia

ABO Blood groups

ABO blood groups are controlled by three alleles, IA, IB and IO.
• IA and IB are both dominant to IO.
• IA and IB are co-dominant, i.e. there is no dominance between them.
Only two alleles are present in any cell.

110 11 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

Table 11.3 Possible combinations of alleles controlling ABO blood groups
Genotype Phenotype
IA IA Blood group A
IA IO Blood group A
II
B B Blood group B
IB IO Blood group B
IA IB Blood group AB
I I
O O Blood group O
For example, if one parent is heterozygous with blood group A and the other is heterozygous with blood
group B:
Parental phenotypes blood group A blood group B
Parental genotypes I A IO I B IO
Gametes IA IO IB I O
gametes IB IO
Random fertilisation IA I A IB I A IO
IO I B IO I O IO
F1 genotypes I A IB I A IO I B IO I O IO
F1 phenotypes blood blood blood blood
group AB group A group B group O
25% of the offspring have blood group AB
25% of the offspring have blood group A
25% of the offspring have blood group B
25% of the offspring have blood group O

The inheritance of sex in humans

In each cell, one pair of chromosomes is composed of the sex chromosomes. There are two types, X and Y,
and they determine the individual’s sex. Genotype XX is female; genotype XY is male. Only the male can
pass on the Y chromosome, consequently the father is the parent who determines the sex of his offspring.
Parental phenotypes female male
Parental genotypes XX XY

Gametes X X X Y

Random fertilisation

F1 genotypes XX XY XX XY
F1 phenotypes female male female male
50% of the offspring are female
50% of the offspring are male

11 Inheritance and genetic engineering 111

 Sex-linked characteristics
Sex-linked characteristics are characteristics determined by genes carried on the sex-chromosomes
that have nothing to do with determining the sex of the offspring. These are known as sex-linked
genes. Since chromosome X is longer than chromosome Y, it carries more genes. Males only have one
X chromosome and any allele carried on this chromosome only, whether dominant or recessive, will
be expressed in the phenotype. Examples of sex-linked characteristics include haemophilia and colour
blindness.
Haemophilia
Haemophilia is a sex-linked condition where the blood fails to clot at a cut. The dominant allele, H,
causes blood to clot normally; the recessive allele, h, causes haemophilia. These alleles are carried
on the X chromosome only. Males are much more likely to be haemophiliacs than females; if the
single X chromosome in a male carries the recessive allele he will have the condition, whereas both X
chromosomes must carry the recessive allele in a female for her to have the condition.
Table 11.4 Possible combinations of alleles controlling blood clotting
Genotype Phenotype
XH XH Female, normal blood clotting
XH Xh Female, normal blood clotting (carrier)
Xh Xh Female, haemophiliac
XYH Male, normal blood clotting
Xh Y Male, haemophiliac

Example
A cross between a female with normal blood clotting who is a carrier, and a male with normal
blood clotting.
Parental phenotypes female, normal clotting male, normal clotting
Parental genotypes XHXh XHY
Gametes XH Xh XH Y

gametes XH Y

Random fertilisation XH XHXH XHY

Xh XHXh XhY

F1 genotypes XHXH XHY XHXh XhY

F1 phenotypes female, male, female, male
normal clotting normal clotting normal clotting with haemophilia
All the female offspring have normal blood clotting
50% of the male offspring have normal blood clotting
50% of the male offspring have haemophilia

112 11 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

Colour blindness
Colour blindness (also known as red–green colour blindness) is a sex-linked condition where the
sufferer is unable to distinguish differences between certain colours. The dominant allele, R, allows
normal vision and the recessive allele, r, causes colour blindness. These alleles are carried on the X
chromosome only, so colour blindness is inherited in the same way as haemophilia.
Some important genetic terms
Chromosome: a thread-like structure composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein, which
contains genetic information in the form of genes.
Gene: the basic unit of heredity which is composed of DNA, occupies a fixed position on a
chromosome and determines a specific characteristic.
Allele: either of a pair (or series) of alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same position on a
particular chromosome and that control the same characteristic.
Dominant allele: the allele which, if present, produces the same phenotype whether its paired allele is
identical or different.
Recessive allele: the allele that only shows its effect on the phenotype if its paired allele is identical.
Dominant trait: an inherited characteristic that results from the presence of a single dominant allele. It
is seen in an individual with one or two dominant alleles.
Recessive trait: an inherited characteristic that results from the presence of two recessive alleles. It is
only seen in an individual with no dominant allele.
Co-dominance: neither allele dominates the other such that the influence of both alleles is visible in
the heterozygous individual.
Genotype: the combination of alleles present in an organism.
Phenotype: the observable characteristics of an organism.
Homozygous: having two identical alleles in corresponding positions on a pair of
homologous chromosomes.
Heterozygous: having two different alleles in corresponding positions on a pair of
homologous chromosomes.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology involves changing the traits of one organism by
inserting genetic material from a different organism into its DNA. The organism receiving the genetic
material is called a transgenic organism or genetically modified organism (GMO).
Genetic engineering is used to:
• Improve the quality of a food product, e.g. by increasing nutritional value.
• Improve yields of livestock and crops, e.g. by increasing size or growth rate, or by making
organisms hardier.
• Protect agricultural crops against environmental threats, e.g. pathogens, pests, herbicides and low
temperatures.
• Make organisms produce materials that they do not usually produce, e.g. vaccines and drugs.
Genetic engineering and food production
Genetic engineering is used to improve food production. Some examples follow.
11 Inheritance and genetic engineering 113
 Golden rice
By inserting two genes into rice plants, one from
maize and one from a soil bacterium, the rice grains
are stimulated to produce beta-carotene which the
body converts to vitamin A. Golden rice should help
fight vitamin A deficiency, which is a leading cause
of blindness, and often death, of children in many
developing countries.
Bovine somatotrophin (BST) hormone
By transferring the gene which controls the production
of BST hormone from cattle into bacteria, the bacteria
produce the hormone, which is then injected into Figure 11.1 Golden rice
cattle to increase milk and meat production.
Chymosin (rennin)
By transferring the gene which controls the production of chymosin from calf stomach cells into
bacteria or fungi, the microorganisms produce chymosin, which is used in cheese production. This
has considerably increased the production of cheese worldwide.
Genetic engineering and medical treatment
Genetic engineering is used to produce many drugs used in medical treatment. Some examples follow.
Insulin
By transferring the gene that controls insulin production in humans into bacteria, the bacteria
produce human insulin which is used to treat diabetes.
bacterium human pancreas cell

plasmid –
ring of DNA
chromosome with
insulin-producing gene
in its DNA
plasmid DNA is
removed and cut using insulin-producing
restriction enzymes insulin-producing gene is gene is cut out
inserted into the plasmid DNA
forming recombinant DNA

recombinant DNA is
reintroduced into a bacterium

the bacterium multiplies and

all the cells produce insulin

insulin is separated
and purified

Figure 11.2 Recombinant DNA technology to produce insulin

114 11 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology
Human growth hormone (HGH)
By transferring the gene controlling the production of HGH into bacteria, the bacteria produce the
hormone which is used to treat growth disorders in children.
Hepatitis B vaccine
By transferring the gene controlling the production of hepatitis B antigens by the hepatitis B virus
into yeast, the yeast produces the antigens, which are used as a vaccine.
Other drugs produced by genetic engineering
• Blood clotting drugs for haemophiliacs.
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) used to stimulate the ovaries to release ova in women that are
infertile.
• Interferons used to treat viral infections and certain cancers.
• Anticoagulants used to prevent the development of life-threatening blood clots in heart patients.
• Human papilloma virus vaccine.
Possible advantages of genetic engineering
• Yields can be increased by genetic engineering, which should increase the world food supply and
reduce food shortages.
• The nutritional value of foods can be increased by genetic engineering, which should reduce
deficiency diseases worldwide.
• The need for chemical pesticides that harm the environment can be reduced by genetically
engineering crops to be resistant to pests.
• Vaccines produced by genetic engineering are generally safer than vaccines containing live and
weakened, or dead pathogens.
• Larger quantities of drugs in a safer and purer form can be produced than were previously
produced from animal sources, resulting in more people worldwide having ready access to safe,
life-saving drugs.
• It overcomes ethical concerns of obtaining certain drugs from animals, e.g. insulin used to be
obtained from pigs and cows.
Possible disadvantages of genetic engineering
• Plants genetically engineered to be toxic to a pest may also be toxic to useful organisms, e.g. insects
which bring about pollination. This could reduce reproduction in crops, reducing food production.
• Plants genetically engineered to be resistant to pests and herbicides could create unpredictable
environmental issues, e.g. they could lead to the development of pesticide-resistant pests and
herbicide resistant ‘superweeds’.
• Once a genetically modified organism is released into the environment it cannot be contained or
recalled. Any negative effects are irreversible.
• The number of allergens in foods could be increased by transferring genes causing allergic
reactions between species.
• As yet unknown health risks may occur as a result of eating genetically modified plants and animals.
• Large companies with funds and technology to develop genetically modified organisms could
make large profits at the expense of smaller companies and poorer nations.
• Future steps in genetic engineering might allow the genetic makeup of higher organisms, including
humans, to be altered, e.g. to produce ‘designer babies’. Difficult moral and ethical issues then arise,
e.g. how far should we go in changing our own genes and those of other animals?
11 Inheritance and genetic engineering 115