AI is being used to solve problems in a wide range of areas:

Online Shopping: AI algorithms process massive user data to extract personalized data about shoppers and present
them with items they are more likely interested in.

Autonomous Cars: By collecting data from GPS, vehicle radar, and cameras, autonomous cars can function without
human help. While fully automated cars are not on the streets yet, companies like Tesla have implemented autopilot
features.

Social Media: AI has become fundamental to how social networks operate. Companies like Facebook apply AI in areas
like advertising, personalized content, and facial recognition.

Surveillance: AI systems can automatically detect suspicious behavior in real-time, which can be helpful in places with
restricted access like supermarkets and military stations.

Agriculture: AI is at the core of innovative approaches in agriculture. Applications of AI include precision farming, pest
detection, and monitoring the health of soils and crops.

Customer Service: AI-powered chatbots are used to provide customer support, offering a fast and cheaper way to assist
customers.

Healthcare: AI has immense potential in healthcare. Applications include disease diagnosis, drug development, and
assisting with complex surgeries.

Space Exploration: AI is used to process the massive amount of data involved in space exploration. AI supports space
mission planning, data collection, navigation, and maneuvering.

Smart Homes: AI systems in smart homes assist with home security, household chores, and smoke detection.

Banks: AI systems are used to trace the patterns of credit card transactions and detect fraud.

Search Engines: AI, such as NLP, is used to understand user search queries and rank the responses presented to users.

Augmented reality (AR) enhances the real world by overlaying computer-generated digital data on real-world
objects. AR creates an engaging user experience by blending the real world with computer-generated
information. The hardware needed to run AR includes a processor, sensors, input devices, and a display, all of
which are included in mobile devices. Other possible displays for AR applications include tablets, head-
mounted displays (HMD), or smart glasses. AR displays are used to locate objects of focus, as well as show the
computer-generated overlaid information.
Virtual Reality (VR) is a technology that creates a three-dimensional computer-generated simulated
environment. VR environments can be interacted with through electronic devices such as goggles, headsets,
gloves, or bodysuits. Unlike AR, VR creates a completely immersive experience for the user by making the
mind believe the artificial information presented to the senses is reality. Using various sensors, a VR
environment responds to the user’s movements and adjusts views and perspectives in real-time. Users can touch
and manipulate virtual objects through data gloves equipped with force-feedback devices.

The Difference between AR and VR

While both AR and VR offer enriched and interactive experiences with rich 3-D visuals, they differ in several
ways. The table below highlights some of the key differences:

Feature Augmented Reality Virtual Reality

Setting Real-world setting Completely virtual world
Immersion Partially immersive Fully immersive
User Control Users control their presence in the real Users are under the control of the
world system
Device Can run on devices like smartphones Requires a headset device
Requirements
Environment Real and virtual worlds blend Fictional/simulated reality

Applications of VR and AR

AR and VR have wide-ranging potential applications. The interactive nature of these technologies makes them
particularly attractive for areas such as education, healthcare, and entertainment.

Education

• AR and VR enable learn-on-the-go using real-time instructions.

• They allow students to travel in time and space to see historical events interactively.
• AR helps students learn concretely by, for example, visualizing different organ systems.
• Presenting complex concepts in a three-dimensional interactive manner simplifies them.
• VR and AR can be used in place of scarce resources like laboratory equipment.
• Learning from anywhere becomes possible using accessible devices like smartphones.
• Students from different parts of the world can connect interactively, fostering empathy and
collaboration.
Healthcare

• AR/VR technologies are used to train physicians and medical students, enabling risk-free learning of
life-saving operations like surgery.
• AR improves disease diagnosis, making it less invasive and pain-free.
• Surgeons can visualize a patient’s muscles, bones, and internal organs using AR, which supports a safer
and more accurate surgical procedure.
• VR supports tele-surgery, where the patient and surgeon are in different locations.
• VR headsets can distract patients from stress during prolonged hospital stays, making medical treatment
less stressful.

Entertainment

• AR enhances the visitor experience in art galleries and museums by adding computer-generated data to
artifacts.
• VR movie theatres equipped with special seating and sensory enhancements create an immersive movie
experience.
• Amusement parks can incorporate VR and AR components for visitor enjoyment.
• AR games offer new ways for gamers to interact with the real world, particularly for mobile gamers.
Data science blends tools, algorithms, and machine learning principles to uncover hidden patterns in
data. It's a field that combines statistics, mathematics, and computer science.

Data science is used to manage the massive amount of data that organizations are generating from different
sources. Data scientists use algorithms to transform data into valuable insights.

Big Data

Data science is closely connected to big data, which are datasets that are too large or complex for traditional
processing methods. Big data is characterized by its:

• Volume: the amount of data

• Variety: the different types of data
• Velocity: the speed at which data is generated

An example of big data is Facebook, which generated 4 petabytes of data per day in 2020.

Data Science Applications

Data science can be applied to many fields to improve results. Some applications of data science include:
 • Predicting product demand in manufacturing
• Personalizing information on social media
• Weather forecasting for agriculture
• Using preventive medicine in healthcare
• Managing business risk

Privacy Concerns

Data science frequently involves collecting large amounts of user data, which can be at odds with privacy,
especially where there are strong privacy regulations. Two possible solutions are:

• Data anonymization, which is removing personally identifiable information from data

• Data generalization, which is grouping data into broad categories, like age groups and geographic areas

However, these approaches may limit the insights companies can derive from data, leaving privacy a point of
contention.
3.1 Data Management Approaches

1. Introduction to Data Management

• Data management is essential for day-to-day activities in organizations.

• Traditionally, data was managed manually using physical papers.
• With the growth of data size, computers became vital for efficient data management.

2. File-Based Data Management

• Data is stored in separate files without explicit relationships.

• Each department manages its own files using different application programs.

Example:

• The procurement and finance departments create and manage separate files.

Challenges of File-Based Management:

• Data Duplication: Employee records may exist in multiple departments.

• Data Inconsistency: Updates in one department may not reflect in another.
• Data Isolation: Retrieving organization-wide data is difficult.

These challenges led to the development of the database approach.

3. Database Approach to Data Management

• Data is managed centrally using a Database Management System (DBMS).

• A database stores logically-related data in a single repository.

Examples of Databases in Organizations:

 • Schools: Student records
• Supermarkets: Sales records
• Hospitals: Patient records

Role of DBMS:

• Add, modify, delete, and retrieve data.

• Acts as an interface between the database and end users/application programs.

Database Architecture:

1. Database: Stores the actual data.

2. DBMS: Manages the database.
3. Application Programs: Submit queries and retrieve data.

Advantages of the Database Approach:

• Data Independence: Centralized storage eliminates isolated departmental files.

• Data Sharing: All users access the central database.
• Avoiding Data Redundancy: Centralized storage removes duplication.
• Improved Data Security: Only authorized users can access or modify data

3.2. Data Model

The data model serves as the blueprint of a database. It acts as a guide to how data is stored, demonstrating:

• Entities: The main objects for which data is stored.

• Attributes: The properties or details of these entities.
• Relationships: How these entities are connected.

Key Concepts in Data Modelling

Entities

Entities are the fundamental subjects of data storage:

• Examples:
o Banks: Customers, bank accounts.
o Libraries: Books, loans, borrowers.
• In a database, entities are represented as tables.

Attributes

Attributes are the characteristics or properties of an entity:

• Examples:
o Customer Entity: Customer ID, name, gender, address.
o Book Entity: Author name, book title, publication year.

Relationships
Relationships describe how entities are associated with each other:

Types of Relationships:

1. One-to-One Relationship:
▪ Each instance of an entity is associated with one instance of another entity.
▪ Example: A country and its capital city (one country has one capital city).

2. One-to-Many Relationship:
▪ One instance of an entity is associated with many instances of another entity.
▪ Example: A university department and its students (one department has many students).

3. Many-to-Many Relationship:
▪ Instances of one entity can be associated with multiple instances of another entity, and
vice versa.
▪ Example: Employees working on multiple projects, each project having multiple
employees.

3.2.2 Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)

Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) is a popular tool for visually representing data models. It includes three main
components:

1. Entity - Represented as rectangles. Entities have names placed inside the rectangles.

2. Attribute - Represented as ellipses. Attributes have names placed inside the ellipses.

3. Relationship - Represented as lines showing the association between entities. Relationship names are placed on
top of the lines.

Example:

• Student Entity: Attributes include student_id, name, age, and address.

• Book Entity: Attributes include book_id, book_title, and publication_year.

 • Relationship: The entities are related by the borrows relationship.

3.2.3 Relational Data Model

The relational data model represents data in terms of two-dimensional tables

called relations. A relation is nothing but a table of rows and columns. Each row,

also called a record or tuple, contains a unique instance of data. These rows in

the relation denote a real-world entity. The columns in a relation, also known as

attributes or fields, are used to describe the properties of relations.

The relational data model provides conceptual tools to represent a data model of a

relational database. A relational data model captures a collection of relations, their

attributes, and their relationships.

3.2.4 Relational Database

Relational database is a type of database that contains logically related set of tables.

The rows in a table are called records, and the columns are called fields or attributes.

Relational database is implemented using relational database management system

(RDMS) software. The following three tables are used to show implementation of

a relational database