AI is being used to solve problems in a wide range of areas:

Online Shopping: AI algorithms process massive user data to extract personalized data about shoppers and present
them with items they are more likely interested in.

Autonomous Cars: By collecting data from GPS, vehicle radar, and cameras, autonomous cars can function without
human help. While fully automated cars are not on the streets yet, companies like Tesla have implemented autopilot
features.

Social Media: AI has become fundamental to how social networks operate. Companies like Facebook apply AI in areas
like advertising, personalized content, and facial recognition.

Surveillance: AI systems can automatically detect suspicious behavior in real-time, which can be helpful in places with
restricted access like supermarkets and military stations.

Agriculture: AI is at the core of innovative approaches in agriculture. Applications of AI include precision farming, pest
detection, and monitoring the health of soils and crops.

Customer Service: AI-powered chatbots are used to provide customer support, offering a fast and cheaper way to assist
customers.

Healthcare: AI has immense potential in healthcare. Applications include disease diagnosis, drug development, and
assisting with complex surgeries.

Space Exploration: AI is used to process the massive amount of data involved in space exploration. AI supports space
mission planning, data collection, navigation, and maneuvering.

Smart Homes: AI systems in smart homes assist with home security, household chores, and smoke detection.

Banks: AI systems are used to trace the patterns of credit card transactions and detect fraud.

Search Engines: AI, such as NLP, is used to understand user search queries and rank the responses presented to users.

Augmented reality (AR) enhances the real world by overlaying computer-generated digital data on real-world
objects. AR creates an engaging user experience by blending the real world with computer-generated
information. The hardware needed to run AR includes a processor, sensors, input devices, and a display, all of
which are included in mobile devices. Other possible displays for AR applications include tablets, head-
mounted displays (HMD), or smart glasses. AR displays are used to locate objects of focus, as well as show the
computer-generated overlaid information.
Virtual Reality (VR) is a technology that creates a three-dimensional computer-generated simulated
environment. VR environments can be interacted with through electronic devices such as goggles, headsets,
gloves, or bodysuits. Unlike AR, VR creates a completely immersive experience for the user by making the
mind believe the artificial information presented to the senses is reality. Using various sensors, a VR
environment responds to the user’s movements and adjusts views and perspectives in real-time. Users can touch
and manipulate virtual objects through data gloves equipped with force-feedback devices.

The Difference between AR and VR

While both AR and VR offer enriched and interactive experiences with rich 3-D visuals, they differ in several
ways. The table below highlights some of the key differences:

Feature Augmented Reality Virtual Reality

Setting Real-world setting Completely virtual world
Immersion Partially immersive Fully immersive
User Control Users control their presence in the real Users are under the control of the
world system
Device Can run on devices like smartphones Requires a headset device
Requirements
Environment Real and virtual worlds blend Fictional/simulated reality

Applications of VR and AR

AR and VR have wide-ranging potential applications. The interactive nature of these technologies makes them
particularly attractive for areas such as education, healthcare, and entertainment.

Education

 AR and VR enable learn-on-the-go using real-time instructions.

 They allow students to travel in time and space to see historical events interactively.
 AR helps students learn concretely by, for example, visualizing different organ systems.
 Presenting complex concepts in a three-dimensional interactive manner simplifies them.
 VR and AR can be used in place of scarce resources like laboratory equipment.
 Learning from anywhere becomes possible using accessible devices like smartphones.
 Students from different parts of the world can connect interactively, fostering empathy and
collaboration.
Healthcare

 AR/VR technologies are used to train physicians and medical students, enabling risk-free learning of
life-saving operations like surgery.
 AR improves disease diagnosis, making it less invasive and pain-free.
 Surgeons can visualize a patient’s muscles, bones, and internal organs using AR, which supports a safer
and more accurate surgical procedure.
 VR supports tele-surgery, where the patient and surgeon are in different locations.
 VR headsets can distract patients from stress during prolonged hospital stays, making medical treatment
less stressful.

Entertainment

 AR enhances the visitor experience in art galleries and museums by adding computer-generated data to
artifacts.
 VR movie theatres equipped with special seating and sensory enhancements create an immersive movie
experience.
 Amusement parks can incorporate VR and AR components for visitor enjoyment.
 AR games offer new ways for gamers to interact with the real world, particularly for mobile gamers.
Data science blends tools, algorithms, and machine learning principles to uncover hidden patterns in
data. It's a field that combines statistics, mathematics, and computer science.

Data science is used to manage the massive amount of data that organizations are generating from different
sources. Data scientists use algorithms to transform data into valuable insights.

Big Data

Data science is closely connected to big data, which are datasets that are too large or complex for traditional
processing methods. Big data is characterized by its:

 Volume: the amount of data

 Variety: the different types of data
 Velocity: the speed at which data is generated

An example of big data is Facebook, which generated 4 petabytes of data per day in 2020.

Data Science Applications

Data science can be applied to many fields to improve results. Some applications of data science include:
  Predicting product demand in manufacturing
 Personalizing information on social media
 Weather forecasting for agriculture
 Using preventive medicine in healthcare
 Managing business risk

Privacy Concerns

Data science frequently involves collecting large amounts of user data, which can be at odds with privacy,
especially where there are strong privacy regulations. Two possible solutions are:

 Data anonymization, which is removing personally identifiable information from data

 Data generalization, which is grouping data into broad categories, like age groups and geographic areas

However, these approaches may limit the insights companies can derive from data, leaving privacy a point of
contention.
3.1 Data Management Approaches

1. Introduction to Data Management

 Data management is essential for day-to-day activities in organizations.

 Traditionally, data was managed manually using physical papers.
 With the growth of data size, computers became vital for efficient data management.

2. File-Based Data Management

 Data is stored in separate files without explicit relationships.

 Each department manages its own files using different application programs.

Example:

 The procurement and finance departments create and manage separate files.

Challenges of File-Based Management:

 Data Duplication: Employee records may exist in multiple departments.

 Data Inconsistency: Updates in one department may not reflect in another.
 Data Isolation: Retrieving organization-wide data is difficult.

These challenges led to the development of the database approach.

3. Database Approach to Data Management

 Data is managed centrally using a Database Management System (DBMS).

 A database stores logically-related data in a single repository.

Examples of Databases in Organizations:

 Schools: Student records

  Supermarkets: Sales records
 Hospitals: Patient records

Role of DBMS:

 Add, modify, delete, and retrieve data.

 Acts as an interface between the database and end users/application programs.

Database Architecture:

1. Database: Stores the actual data.

2. DBMS: Manages the database.
3. Application Programs: Submit queries and retrieve data.

Advantages of the Database Approach:

 Data Independence: Centralized storage eliminates isolated departmental files.

 Data Sharing: All users access the central database.
 Avoiding Data Redundancy: Centralized storage removes duplication.
 Improved Data Security: Only authorized users can access or modify data

3.2. Data Model

The data model serves as the blueprint of a database. It acts as a guide to how data is stored, demonstrating:

 Entities: The main objects for which data is stored.

 Attributes: The properties or details of these entities.
 Relationships: How these entities are connected.

Key Concepts in Data Modelling

Entities

Entities are the fundamental subjects of data storage:

 Examples:
o Banks: Customers, bank accounts.
o Libraries: Books, loans, borrowers.
 In a database, entities are represented as tables.

Attributes

Attributes are the characteristics or properties of an entity:

 Examples:
o Customer Entity: Customer ID, name, gender, address.
o Book Entity: Author name, book title, publication year.

Relationships

Relationships describe how entities are associated with each other:

Types of Relationships:

1. One-to-One Relationship:
 Each instance of an entity is associated with one instance of another entity.
 Example: A country and its capital city (one country has one capital city).

2. One-to-Many Relationship:
 One instance of an entity is associated with many instances of another entity.
 Example: A university department and its students (one department has many students).

3. Many-to-Many Relationship:
 Instances of one entity can be associated with multiple instances of another entity, and
vice versa.
 Example: Employees working on multiple projects, each project having multiple
employees.

3.2.2 Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)

Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) is a popular tool for visually representing data models. It includes three main
components:

1. Entity - Represented as rectangles. Entities have names placed inside the rectangles.

2. Attribute - Represented as ellipses. Attributes have names placed inside the ellipses.

3. Relationship - Represented as lines showing the association between entities. Relationship names are placed on
top of the lines.

Example:

 Student Entity: Attributes include student_id, name, age, and address.

 Book Entity: Attributes include book_id, book_title, and publication_year.

 Relationship: The entities are related by the borrows relationship.

3.2.3 Relational Data Model

The relational data model represents data in terms of two-dimensional tables

called relations. A relation is nothing but a table of rows and columns. Each row,

also called a record or tuple, contains a unique instance of data. These rows in

the relation denote a real-world entity. The columns in a relation, also known as

attributes or fields, are used to describe the properties of relations.

The relational data model provides conceptual tools to represent a data model of a

relational database. A relational data model captures a collection of relations, their

attributes, and their relationships.

3.2.4 Relational Database

Relational database is a type of database that contains logically related set of tables.

The rows in a table are called records, and the columns are called fields or attributes.

Relational database is implemented using relational database management system

(RDMS) software. The following three tables are used to show implementation of

a relational database
3.3 Creating Relational Database in Microsoft Access

This section explains how to create and manage a database in Microsoft (MS) Access. Relations or entities are
represented as database tables, and attributes are represented as table fields. Below, Figure shows the required
transformation between relations in the relational data model and MS Access database tables.
The data type column indicates the type of data to be stored for the respective field.

For example, student name field, as shown in Figure, has Text data type while

grade is assigned Number as its data type.

3.3.1 Creating a Microsoft Access Database

When working with Microsoft Access, creating a database is the first step. In MS Access, a database is a container of
database objects such as tables, forms, queries, and reports.

Steps to create a database:

1. Open MS Access Software

2. Click on "Blank Database" in the main window

3. Enter the database name in the "File Name" input box

o Use names that properly describe the data stored in the database.

4. Click on the "Create" button

After the database is created, another MS Access window will open where you can create database objects.

We use the following tables in Figure 3.15 for the following practical activities in

MS Access.
3.3.2 Creating a Table in Microsoft Access

When creating a new table, Microsoft Access asks you to define table fields. Follow these steps to create a table:

1. Open a database file

2. Click on "Table Design" button from the "Create" menu

3. Enter field names for the new table

o E.g., Student_ID, Sname, Sex, Age, Grade_level

4. Specify the data type of each field

o Text, Number, Date/Time, Currency, etc.

5. Click on the "Save" button

6. Enter the table name and click "OK" in the popup

Notes:

 Ensure the appropriate data type for each field to validate the correctness of the data.

 To set a field as the primary key, select the field and click on the "Primary Key" button in the toolbar.

3.3.3 Entering Data into a Database Table

1. Open the database if not already opened

 2. Click on the table name and select "Datasheet View" from the "View" menu

o E.g., Open the student table.

3. Enter values for each field

4. Enter all records as shown in Figure 3.15

3.3.3 Creating Query in Microsoft Access

Query is a database object that provides a custom view of data from one or more

tables. It is a way of searching for and compiling data from one or more tables.

In MS Access, data is retrieved through query by creating graphical query or

writing Structured Query Language (SQL) statements. In this section, you will

learn how to retrieve data using graphical query. A query is used to define specific

search conditions to find exactly the data you want.

Follow the following steps in order to create a query in Microsoft Access:

1. Open a database where your database tables are stored

2. Click on Create menu button. Then, you get the following MS Access toolbar
You can create query using Query Wizard or Query Design. Let us see how to

create a query using Query Design option.

3. Click on Query Design button from Microsoft Access toolbar.

4. Select a table or tables from Show Table box from which you want to select

records for your query (See Figure 3.18), and click on OK bottom. You then get

the following window.

5. Select the fields in the Field row. For example, if you want to select only sname

and sex field, select sname in the first column and sex in the second column of

the Field row.

6. Select Datasheet View from the toolbar to see your query results (see Figure

3.19).If you do it correctly, you get the following results.

In a simple way teach like this only for me

3.3.4 Creating a Query in Microsoft Access

Queries allow you to search for and compile data from one or more tables. Follow these steps to create a query:

1. Open the database where your tables are stored

2. Click on the "Create" menu button

3. Click on "Query Design" button from the toolbar

4. Select the table(s) you want to query from the "Show Table" box and click "OK"

5. Select fields in the "Field" row

6. Select "Datasheet View" to see query results

Figure 3.19: Query Results

3.3.5 Adding Criteria to Query Design

To retrieve specific data, you can add criteria to your query:

1. Open the "Query Design" window

2. Add the table(s) to the design window

3. Select fields for display in the query result

4. Enter selection criteria in the "Criteria" row

o E.g., Enter 'M' under the Sex column to display only Male students

Note:

 The criteria you enter must match the data in the table exactly

3.3.6 Selecting Data from Multiple Tables

Follow the following steps in order to select data from multiple tables:

1. Open the Query Design window.

2. Add a table to the Query Design window. If Show Table window is not

displayed, click on Show Table button from the Toolbar. You will have a list

of tables in the Show Table Box.

3. Select a table and click on Add button to add the table into Query Design

Window.

4. Repeat step 3 to add more tables.

5. Establish a relationship between the tables by dragging the primary key field

in the Parent table to the Child Table (See Figure 3.21).

6. Select the fields to be displayed in Query Datasheet View. For example, we

want to select student name (fname) from student table, subject and grade

from grade table, and teacher name (tname) from teacher table.

7. Choose the Save button from the File menu to save your query.

8. Enter a file name for the new Query, and click on the OK button.

9. Click on the View button in the Toolbar to see the query results (see Figure

3.22).
Unit 4: Web Development - Study Guide
4.1 World Wide Web
Definition: The World Wide Web (WWW), or the Web, is a collection of websites accessed via the Internet using a web
browser. It was invented in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee.

Key Components:

HTML (HyperText Markup Language): The language for creating webpages.

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Rules for communication between web browsers and web servers.

Web Server: Software that stores webpages and responds to user requests.

Web Browser: Software used to view webpages.

Website: A publicly accessible collection of interrelated webpages. Websites enable organizations and individuals to
present themselves to a global audience, facilitate online transactions, and provide access to e-services.

Example: Using a website to order products online, access government services, or learn through online educational
resources.

4.2 Website Design

Definition: The plan and design of a website's layout, navigation, appearance, and graphics. The goal is to create an
appealing and user-friendly website.

Design Guidelines:

Target Audience: Design should consider the intended audience.

Navigation: Webpages should be logically organized for easy navigation.

Consistency: Maintain a similar look and feel across all webpages.

Simplicity: Use colors, graphics, and typefaces sparingly.

Accessibility: Design with everyone in mind, including people with disabilities.

Website Development: The actual creation of websites, which can be done using WYSIWYG software or simple text
editors. Website design defines the layout, while website development deals with building the website.

Example: A website for children should have a different design than one for business professionals.

4.3 HTML Basics

Definition: HTML is a markup language used to create webpages. It uses predefined markup tags to define webpage
elements. The current version is HTML5.

HTML Tags and Elements:

Tags: Predefined names enclosed in angle brackets (e.g., <b>, <p>, <h1>).

Elements: Components of an HTML document consisting of a start tag, content, and an end tag (e.g., <p>This is a
paragraph.</p>).

Void Elements: HTML elements that do not have an end tag (e.g., <br>, <hr>).

Structure of HTML Documents:

<!DOCTYPE html>: Specifies the document type.

<html>...</html>: Represents the entire document.

<head>...</head>: Contains information about the webpage, such as the title.

<body>...</body>: Contains the content of the webpage that is displayed in the web browser.

HTML Attributes: Used to define properties of HTML elements and are written inside the start tag with attribute-value
pairs (e.g., <p align="right">). The <img> and <video> elements use the "src" attribute.

4.4 HTML Links

Definition: Used to navigate between webpages or different parts of a single page.

The links could come in the form of text or images and

are normally known as hyperlinks.

Links to Other Pages:

Anchor tag <a> is used to create hyperlinks.

Absolute URL: Includes the protocol, hostname, and path (e.g., http://www.somewebsite.com/somefile.html).

Relative URL: Path relative to the current webpage (e.g., somedirectory/somefile.html).

Images as Links: Embed the <img> element inside the anchor tag <a>.

Links to Page Sections: Create hyperlinks to different sections within the same page by using the # symbol followed by
the section name (e.g., <a href="#section1">).

Example: Linking to the Ethiopian Airlines website using <a href="https://www.ethiopianairlines.com">Ethiopian

Airlines</a>.

4.5 HTML Tables

Definition: Used to organize data in rows and columns.

Key Tags:

<table>: Defines the table.

<th>: Defines table headers.

<tr>: Defines table rows.

<td>: Defines data cells.

Attributes:

border: Adds a border to the table.

colspan: Merges multiple columns.

rowspan: Merges multiple rows.

The number of rows of a table is determined by the number of <tr> elements that
the <table> has while the number of columns is determined by the number of <td>
elements that are found in each <tr>.

<table border=1>
<tr>
<th>Mountain Name</th>
<th >Elevation</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ras Dashen</td>
<td>4,620 m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Tullu Dimtu</td>
<td>4,377 m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Guge</td>
<td>4,200 m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Amba Alagi</td>
<td>3,949 m</td>
</tr>
</table>

4.6 HTML Lists

Ordered Lists (<ol>): Creates numbered lists.

<li>: Inserts individual items into the list.

type attribute: Changes the numbering type (e.g., "1", "A", "a", "I", "i").

Unordered Lists (<ul>): Creates bulleted lists.

<li>: Inserts individual items into the list.

type attribute: Changes the bullet type (e.g., "disc", "square", "circle").

Description Lists (<dl>): Defines a description list.

<dt>: Adds the item to be described.

<dd>: Adds the description or definition.

Nesting Lists: Any type of list can be placed inside another type of list.

Example: Creating an ordered list of steps to complete a task or an unordered list of items to buy at the grocery store.