1.

Guided Media in Computer Networks

Guided media, also known as wired media, provide a physical pathway for signal transmission between devices. The
sources focus on three main types of guided media: twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable

This type of cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. The twisting helps to reduce
electromagnetic interference both from external sources and from nearby twisted pairs within the same cable. There
are two main types of twisted-pair cable:

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP): This is the most common type of network cable, widely used in Ethernet networks.
UTP cables are categorised based on their performance capabilities, ranging from Cat1 to Cat7.

Shielded twisted-pair (STP): Each pair of wires in STP cable is wrapped in metallic foil and the entire cable is encased in
a metallic braid or foil to further reduce electromagnetic interference and radio frequency interference (RFI). STP is
preferred in environments with high potential interference from sources like electric motors and wireless devices.

RJ45 connectors are commonly used to terminate UTP cables and connect them to network devices.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable consists of a central conductor (usually copper) surrounded by an insulating sheath, a metallic shield, and
an outer protective jacket. The shield helps to minimise interference, allowing coaxial cable to carry signals of higher
frequency ranges compared to twisted-pair cable.

There are two main types of coaxial cable:

Thick coaxial cable: This type of cable has a larger diameter (6-18mm) and is often used for broadband signals.

Thin coaxial cable: This type of cable has a smaller diameter (around 4mm) and is typically used for baseband signals.

BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) connectors are the most common type of connector used with coaxial cables.
Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cable transmits data using pulses of light through thin glass or plastic fibers. This technology offers several
advantages:

Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Fiber-optic cables are not susceptible to electrical noise, making them
ideal for environments with high levels of interference.

Long transmission distances: Fiber-optic cables can transmit signals over much longer distances compared to copper
cables.

High bandwidth and speed: Fiber-optic cables can carry information at significantly higher speeds and bandwidths
compared to copper cables.

There are two main types of fiber-optic cable:

Single mode: This type of cable uses a smaller core and transmits light in a single path, allowing for longer distances
but at a higher cost.

Multimode: This type of cable uses a larger core and transmits light in multiple paths, offering high bandwidth but over
shorter distances compared to single mode.

Common connectors used with fiber-optic cables include SC (Subscriber Channel), ST (Straight-Tip), and MT-RJ
(Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack).

The choice of guided media depends on factors such as distance, bandwidth requirements, cost, and the level of
electromagnetic interference present in the environment.
Unguided media, also called wireless media, transmit electromagnetic waves without a physical conductor.
Instead, they use ground propagation, sky propagation, or line-of-sight propagation to send signals through
free space. Anyone with a receiving device can access these signals.

Types of Unguided Media

 Radio waves are omnidirectional waves, which means they are transmitted in all directions from the
sending antenna. They are useful for multicasting because any receiving antenna can pick up the
signal. Examples of multicasting include AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless
phones, and paging.

 Microwaves, on the other hand, are unidirectional waves, which means the sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned. Microwave communication offers an advantage over radio waves in that a
pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. Microwaves
are often used in unicast communication, which occurs between one sender and one receiver.
Applications of microwave communication include cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless
LANs.

 Infrared waves have longer wavelengths than those of visible light and are invisible to the human eye.
Infrared waves are used for short-range communication, such as the signal sent from a remote control
to a television.
Telecommunications networks facilitate the exchange of information over long distances. This exchange
includes diverse forms of data, including voice, text, images, and video. The term telecommunications
encompasses various long-distance communication methods, such as telephone, radio, and television. Data
communications is a subset of telecommunications that relies on specialized technologies.

Components of a Telecommunications System

Telecommunications systems consist of interconnected hardware and software components designed to

transmit information between locations. A typical system comprises:

 Hardware: Computers and communications processors, such as modems.

 Communications media: Physical pathways for signal transfer, including wired and wireless media.
 Communications networks: Interconnections between computers and communication devices.
 Communications processors: Devices handling specific data communication functions, such as
modems, multiplexers, and front-end processors.
 Communications software: Software governing the telecommunications system and transmission
processes.
 Data communications providers: Organizations providing data communication services.
 Communications protocols: Rules governing information transfer within the system.
 Communications applications: Software applications facilitating various communication tasks, such
as email and video conferencing.

Functions of a Telecommunications System

To enable information exchange, telecommunications systems must execute various functions, including:

 Information transmission
 Interface establishment between sender and receiver
 Message routing along efficient pathways
 Information processing for accurate delivery
 Error checking and format adjustment
 Signal conversion for compatibility
 Information flow control
 Information security maintenance

Electronic Signals in Telecommunications

Telecommunication media carry analog or digital signals.

 Analog signals are continuous waves modulated to convey information. Examples include sound and
traditional telephone signals.
 Digital signals, like those used by computers, represent information as discrete on-off pulses.

Digital signals offer advantages over analog signals, including:

 Resistance to interference: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise.

 Signal regeneration: Digital signals can be amplified over long distances without significant
degradation.
 Direct computer compatibility: Digital communication between computers eliminates the need for
signal conversion.

Modems in Telecommunications

Modems are crucial components for transmitting digital data over analog telephone lines. Modems perform
the following functions:

 Modulation: Converting digital signals from computers to analog signals for transmission over
telephone lines.
 Demodulation: Converting received analog signals back to digital signals for computer interpretation.

Modems operate in pairs to enable bidirectional communication.

Importance of Telecommunications

Telecommunications have profoundly impacted modern life, particularly in the following areas:

 Education: Telecommunications enable remote learning and global communication for educational
institutions.
 Business: Telecommunications accelerate information exchange for business operations, facilitating
timely decisions and transactions.

The range of telecommunication applications continues to expand, encompassing various communication

forms and technologies. Telecommunication advancements contribute to a more connected and informed
society.

Mobile communications use technology to facilitate communication without the need for physical connections like
wires or cables there are two types of mobile communication technologies: Bluetooth and Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN).

Bluetooth Network

Bluetooth technology utilizes short-range wireless communication to exchange data between electronic
devices. Bluetooth eliminates the need for cables and allows devices to communicate with each other over
short distances by establishing connections through pairing. For example, Bluetooth can facilitate hands-free
phone conversations via a headset.

The Bluetooth transceiver operates in the same unlicensed frequency band as microwaves and Wi-Fi.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

A WLAN is a communication system that utilizes radio frequency technology to connect devices within a
local area. A WLAN can extend an existing wired LAN or serve as an alternative. Access points (APs) are
necessary components in a WLAN. Access points act as bridges between wireless and wired LAN traffic,
enabling communication between devices on the WLAN and devices on the wired network.

WLANs provide flexibility and mobility, allowing users to stay connected to the network while moving within
a local coverage area. For example, students in a school could access learning resources from different
classrooms using a WLAN. WLANs can achieve data transfer rates of up to 11 Mbps. The IEEE 802.11
committee is responsible for developing standards for WLANs. Most modern WLANs are based on these
standards and are often marketed under the brand name Wi-Fi.

To increase the range of a WLAN, multiple APs can be installed with overlapping coverage areas. This
overlapping ensures that devices can seamlessly transition between APs as they move within the network.

Cellular networks, also known as mobile networks, are designed to support communication between
mobile devices

Structure of Cellular Networks

Cellular networks are comprised of cells, which are small geographical areas, each served by a base station.
Base stations are fixed transceivers that serve as central connection points for wireless mobile devices within
their respective cells.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

Each base station is managed by a mobile switching center (MSC). The MSC is responsible for connecting
calls, recording call information, and handling billing processes. In addition to coordinating communication
between base stations, the MSC also connects to the telephone central office. This connection allows mobile
devices on the cellular network to communicate with landline phones.

Cellular Network Generations

Cellular networks are categorized into generations based on technological advancements. These generations
are denoted by numerical designations, starting with 1G and progressing to the current 5G.

 First Generation (1G): 1G networks provided basic analog voice services.

 Second Generation (2G): 2G networks introduced digital voice services and limited data transmission
capabilities.
 Third Generation (3G): 3G networks offered enhanced data transmission speeds, enabling mobile
internet access and multimedia services.
  Fourth Generation (4G): 4G networks focused on high-speed data transmission, supporting mobile
broadband and multimedia streaming.
 Fifth Generation (5G): 5G is the latest generation, aiming to provide ultra-fast data speeds, low
latency, and support for emerging technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT).

Each generation builds upon the capabilities of the previous generation, offering improved speed, capacity,
and functionality.

4G LTE (Long Term Evolution)

4G LTE is a specific type of 4G technology that delivers high-speed mobile broadband, supporting data
transfer rates of up to 100 Mbps.

5G: The Fifth Generation Mobile Network

5G is the latest generation of mobile wireless technology. It follows 4G LTE and is expected to offer not
only faster download speeds but also a significantly more flexible and responsive network. This enhanced
flexibility will allow the network to adapt to various uses.

5G aims to create a network capable of connecting virtually everyone and everything, including
machines, objects, and devices.

Figure 2.31 in the sources provides a visual representation of the 5G network.

5G technology is intended to deliver:

 Higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds.

 Ultra-low latency.
 Increased reliability.
 Massive network capacity.
 Increased availability.
 A more uniform user experience for a greater number of users.

The higher performance and improved efficiency of 5G will empower new user experiences and connect new
industries.

Satellite Networks
A satellite network uses satellites to enable communication between different points on Earth. The sources
compare satellite networks to cellular networks, noting that both systems divide the planet into cells. However,
unlike cellular networks which rely on a network of ground-based cell towers, satellite networks can provide
transmission capabilities to and from any location on Earth, regardless of how remote the location is. This
characteristic makes satellite networks particularly valuable for providing communication services to areas
where establishing ground-based infrastructure is challenging or cost-prohibitive.

Components of a Satellite Network

The sources identify several key components that comprise a satellite network:

 Earth stations: These stations, located on Earth, are responsible for transmitting and receiving signals
to and from satellites.
 Uplink: The uplink refers to the transmission path from an earth station to a satellite.
 Downlink: The downlink refers to the transmission path from a satellite to an earth station.
 Transponder: This component, located on a satellite, receives signals from Earth, amplifies them, and
retransmits them back to Earth.

Figure 2.32 in the sources provides a visual representation of these components.

Satellite Orbits and Categories

An artificial satellite must maintain an orbit around Earth. The sources describe three types of orbits:
equatorial, inclined, and polar. Figure 2.33 in the sources provides an illustration of these different orbits.

Based on the altitude of their orbits, satellites are categorized into three types:

 Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO): GEO satellites orbit at an altitude of 35,786 kilometers. At this
altitude, the satellite's orbital period matches Earth's rotation period, causing the satellite to appear
stationary relative to a specific point on Earth. This characteristic makes GEO satellites suitable for
applications like television broadcasting and providing internet services to fixed locations.
 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): MEO satellites orbit at altitudes between 5,000 and 15,000 kilometers.
MEO satellites offer a compromise between the coverage of GEO satellites and the lower latency of
LEO satellites.
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO): LEO satellites orbit at altitudes below 2,000 kilometers. Their proximity to
Earth results in lower latency, making them well-suited for applications requiring real-time data
transmission, such as satellite imagery and internet connectivity for remote areas.

Figure 2.34 in the sources depicts the different types of satellites and their corresponding orbital
altitudes.

The sources also mention the Van Allen belts, which are layers of charged particles surrounding Earth. These
belts can damage satellites orbiting within them. MEO orbits are positioned between the two Van Allen belts
to mitigate this risk.

Data Communications
Data communication is a specialized subset of telecommunications that focuses on the electronic
collection, processing, and distribution of data, typically between computer system hardware devices.
The sources explain that the effectiveness of a data communication system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, Jitter

Components of a Data Communication System

The sources identify five key components that comprise a data communication system:

 Message: This is the data being transmitted.

 Sender: The device that originates and transmits the message.
 Receiver: The device that receives the message.
 Transmission medium: The physical path through which the message travels from the sender to the
receiver. This medium can be wired (e.g., twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable) or
wireless (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, satellite).
 Protocol: This is a set of rules that governs how the data is formatted, transmitted, and received.

Data Transmission Modes

Data transmission modes define the direction of signal flow between two connected devices. The sources
explain the three primary data transmission modes:

 Simplex: Communication is unidirectional, meaning data can only flow in one direction. An example
is a keyboard, which can only send input to a computer.

 Half-duplex: Each device can both transmit and receive data, but not simultaneously. When one
device is transmitting, the other device can only receive, and vice versa. An example is a walkie-talkie,
where only one person can speak at a time.
  Full-duplex: Both devices can transmit and receive data simultaneously. An example is a telephone
conversation, where both parties can talk and listen at the same time.

The choice of data transmission mode depends on the specific application and the requirements for data flow.

Understanding Internet Protocol

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a critical communication protocol for internetworking. It defines rules for
how data is packetized, addressed, transmitted, and received across networks, both on the internet and local
networks.

IP Addresses: Unique Identifiers for Network Devices

Every device connected to a network needs a unique identifier so that data can be sent to the correct
destination. This is the function of an IP address, which is a numerical label assigned to each device on the
network. It is similar to a street address in the real world, allowing data packets to be delivered to the correct
recipient.

THERE ARE TWO MAIN VERSIONS OF IP Addresses:

 IPv4: This is the older and more widely used version, employing a 32-bit address format.
IPv4 addresses are usually expressed in dotted-decimal notation, consisting of four decimal numbers
separated by periods. Each number ranges from 0 to 255.
o Example IPv4 Address: 192.168.1.100
  IPv6: As the internet grew and the number of devices needing addresses increased, IPv4 started to run
out of addresses. IPv6 was developed to solve this problem, using a 128-bit address format. This larger
address space offers a vast number of unique addresses. IPv6 addresses are represented in hexadecimal
notation, using a combination of numbers and letters.
o Example IPv6 Address: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

IP Address Classes: Organizing Networks by Size

To manage IP address allocation efficiently, the internet uses a class system. Classes are based on network
size, categorizing networks based on the number of hosts (devices) they can accommodate.

 Class A: Designed for very large networks with a vast number of hosts. The first octet (8 bits) of a
Class A address identifies the network, while the remaining three octets identify the hosts within that
network.
 Class B: Intended for medium-sized networks. The first two octets identify the network, and the last
two identify the hosts.
 Class C: Suited for small networks. The first three octets identify the network, and the last octet
identifies the hosts.

Network Masks: Differentiating Network and Host Portions

A network mask helps determine which part of an IP address represents the network and which part
represents the host. It is a 32-bit number that is used alongside the IP address. Each bit in the network mask
corresponds to a bit in the IP address. A '1' bit in the mask indicates that the corresponding bit in the IP
address is part of the network portion, while a '0' bit indicates the host portion.

List of the default network masks for each class:

 Class A: 255.0.0.0
 Class B: 255.255.0.0
 Class C: 255.255.255.0

IP Address Notations: Different Ways to Represent Addresses

IP addresses can be represented in three primary notations:

  Dotted-decimal: The most common and user-friendly format, using decimal numbers separated by
periods.
o Example: 192.168.1.1
 Binary: Represents the address as a 32-bit binary number, using only 0s and 1s. This notation is useful
for understanding the underlying structure of the address but is less convenient for humans to read.
o Example: 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
 Hexadecimal: This notation offers a more compact way to represent the address, using a combination
of numbers (0-9) and letters (A-F) to represent the binary values.
o Example: C0.A8.01.01

Understanding these different notations is helpful when working with network configurations and analyzing
network traffic.
Unit 3: Application Software - Study Guide
3.2 Word Processing
Definition: Using a computer to create, edit, save, and print documents. Software needed is called a word processor
(e.g., Microsoft Word).

Creating a Table
A table arranges data in horizontal rows and vertical columns. Cells are formed at row and column intersections.

Methods:

• Dragging: Quick table creation by dragging the mouse.

• Insert Table Dialog Box: Specify rows and columns.

• Drawing Table: Draw complex tables.

• Quick Tables: Use preformatted tables (e.g., calendars).

Example: Creating a weekly schedule using the dragging method, inserting the days of the week in the first row, and
adding time slots in the columns.

Formatting a Table
• Applying Styles: Use table styles gallery for a professional look.

• Resizing Rows/Columns: Adjust using mouse, ribbon commands, or table properties.

• Inserting Rows/Columns: Add rows/columns using the ribbon or right-click menu.

• Deleting Rows/Columns: Remove rows/columns via the ribbon or right-click menu.

Example: Modifying a student grade table, applying a grid style, resizing columns to fit content, and inserting a new
row for an additional student.

Inserting Pictures, Clip Arts, and Shapes

Inserting Visual Elements in Word Processing

A. Inserting Pictures

 Pictures can be added to a document to enhance its visual appeal.

 When a picture is inserted, it becomes part of the document.
 Steps to insert pictures:
1. Open a new blank document.
2. Go to the Insert tab.
3. Click the Pictures button.
 4. Locate your image file.
5. Click Insert.
6. Add a caption.
 The picture appears in the document, and the Format tab becomes available.

B. Inserting Screenshots

 MS Word enables capturing images of the current screen display and inserting them directly into your
documents.
 Steps to insert a screenshot:
1. Open a new blank document.
2. Click the Insert tab.
3. Click the Screenshot button.
4. Select Screen Clipping.
5. Draw a rectangle around the area you want to capture.
 The selected portion of the screen is pasted into the Word document.

C. Inserting Clip Art

 Clip art can make a document more colorful.

 Steps to insert clip art:
1. Click the Insert tab.
2. Click the Clip Art option in the Illustrations group.
3. Enter a category in the search box and click Go.
4. Double-click the clip art to insert it.
5. Alternatively, select Insert Online Pictures.
6. Type a phrase to describe what you're looking for and press Enter.
7. Filter the results by type for clip art.
8. Select a picture.
9. Select Insert.

D. Inserting Shapes

 Various shapes can be inserted to add visual interest.

 Steps to insert a shape:
1. Click the Insert tab.
2. Click the Shapes button.
3. Select a shape.
4. Click and drag in the document to draw the shape.
 Hold down the Shift key while drawing to create a "perfect" version of the selected shape.
 To lock Word into drawing mode for multiple shapes, right-click on the shape and click the Lock Drawing Mode
command. Press the Esc key to cancel the drawing mode lock.

Examples

 A teacher creates a lesson plan in MS Word. To enhance understanding, they insert a picture of a cell from
their files, a screenshot of a relevant website, clip art of a microscope, and shapes to highlight key parts of the
cell.
 A student prepares a presentation about the water cycle. They use a picture of a lake, clip art of clouds and
rain, and various arrows to illustrate the cycle.
Formatting Page Numbers
 Page numbers automatically number each page in a document.
 They can be customized and come in various number formats.
 Page numbers are usually placed in the header, footer, or side margin.

Steps to Add Page Numbers:

1. On the Insert tab, click the Page Number command.

2. Select the position of the page number. Options include:
o Top of Page
o Bottom of Page
o Page Margin
3. Choose the desired style of header or footer.
4. Page numbering will appear.
5. Press the Esc key to lock the header and footer.
o To make changes, double-click the header or footer to unlock it.

Additional Tips:

 To number pages differently, you can restart page numbering.

 Word allows you to hide the page number on the first page.

Example

 A student is writing a report and wants to include page numbers at the bottom right of each page, except for
the title page. They insert page numbers, choose the "Bottom of Page" option, select a style that aligns to the
right, and then specify that the page number should not appear on the first page.

3.3 Spreadsheet
Definition: A file made of rows and columns to sort, organize, arrange, and calculate numerical data. Microsoft Excel is
a popular example.

Understanding and Displaying Formulas

• Formulas: Essential for calculations. View in the formula bar.

Example: =A1+B1 adds the values in cells A1 and B1.

• Order of Operations: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication/Division, Addition/Subtraction.

Functions
• Definition: Predefined formulas for calculations.

• Syntax: =FUNCTION_NAME(argument1, argument2, ...)

• Common Functions:
 • SUM(): Adds values.

• AVERAGE(): Calculates the average.

• COUNT(): Counts the number of cells with numerical values.

• MAX(): Finds the maximum value.

• MIN(): Finds the minimum value.

Example: Calculating the total score of students using SUM(), finding the average score using AVERAGE(), and
determining the highest score using MAX().

Working with Data

• Freezing Panes: Keep certain rows/columns visible while scrolling.

• Splitting Worksheet: Divide the worksheet into separate panes.

• Sorting Data: Reorganize data alphabetically or numerically.

• Filtering Data: Narrow down data to view specific information.

Example: Managing a large dataset of sales records, freezing the header row, sorting by sales amount, and filtering to
show only sales above a certain value.

Working with Charts

• Definition: Visual display of data. Types include bar, column, pie, line.

Example: Representing sales data using a bar chart, comparing market shares with a pie chart, and showing trends
over time with a line chart.

• Inserting Chart: Select data, choose a chart type.

• Chart Layout/Style: Add titles, legends, data labels; modify styles.

Applying Different Effects to a Cell (Formatting a Cell)

• Font Formatting: Customize font type, size, color.

• Alignment: Change horizontal/vertical alignment.

• Cell Borders/Fill Colors: Create boundaries and highlight sections.

• Number Formatting: Set data types (e.g., percentage, currency).

Example: Enhancing a financial statement by formatting headers with bold fonts, aligning text for clarity, adding
borders to tables, and formatting numbers as currency.
3.4 PowerPoint Presentation
Definition: A graphical presentation program to organize and present information using slides.

Using Animation and Transitions

• Transitions: Animated effects when moving between slides.

• Animation Schemes: Control how information appears on a slide.

Example: Transitioning slides with a fade effect and animating bullet points to appear one at a time.

Creating a Slide Master

• Definition: A top slide that stores theme and layout information.

• Customize background, colors, fonts, and placeholder sizes.

Example: Designing a slide master with a consistent logo placement, a unified color scheme, and custom font styles for
all slides in a presentation.