Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122177

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Using silica fume based activator in sustainable geopolymer binder

for building application
Ndigui Billong a,⇑, Jonathan Oti b, John Kinuthia b
a
Laboratory of Materials Analyses, Local Materials Promotion Authority, P.O. Box 2396, Yaounde, Cameroon
b
Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Science, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, CF 37 1DL, UK

h i g h l i g h t s

Undensified silica fume can be a viable raw material for the production of sodium silicate.

Alternative sodium silicate from silica fume is found to be effective in geopolymer production.

Similar or better performances in physical, mechanical and thermo-gravimetric properties are obtained.

Enhanced sustainability in the reduction of embodied energy in the production of geopolymers can be achieved.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effectiveness of using silica fume based sodium silicate in the production of metakaolin (MK) and
Received 18 May 2020 ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) based geopolymer was investigated. Un-densified silica
Received in revised form 17 December 2020 fume was appropriately dissolved in a 10 M sodium hydroxide solution to obtain a sodium silicate alter-
Accepted 23 December 2020
native (SSA) solution having the SiO2/Na2O molar ratio of 2. The SSA solution was used together with the
Available online 11 January 2021
10 M sodium hydroxide solution in 1:1 vol ratio as alkaline activator to elaborate MK and GGBS based
geopolymer pastes with 1.5 and 0.7 alkaline activator/precursor material ratios respectively at ambient
Keywords:
temperature of 23 ± 2 °C. Setting time, density, compressive strength, tensile strength and water absorp-
Silica fume
Sodium silicate
tion were the physical and mechanical tests performed on fresh and hardened pastes at 3, 7 or 28 days of
Alkaline activator curing. Powder of hardened pastes at 28 days underwent thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) analysis at up to
Geopolymer 1000 °C. For comparison, geopolymer pastes prepared with a standard commercial sodium silicate (SSC)
Sustainability having the same SiO2/Na2O molar ratio were submitted to similar tests. The SSA was found to be effective
in geopolymer production as evidenced by the similar or slightly better performance in physical, mechan-
ical and thermo-gravimetric properties when it was used compared to SSC. Un-densified silica fume
could constitute suitable raw material for sodium silicate production with additional sustainability
potential in the reduction of embodied energy in the production process, since the by-product is not tum-
bled, heated or grinded and the dilution process with the sodium hydroxide solution happens at ambient
temperature.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction automobile, non-ferrous foundry and metallurgy, pollutants

immobilization, plastic industry, and in energy storage and possi-
Geopolymer binders are inorganic polymers which comprise of bly other niche uses [3–5]. Because of the environmental concerns
amorphous and three-dimensional structures formed from poly- due to the high-energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions
condensation of alumino-silicate monomers in the presence of associated with the manufacture of Portland cement (PC) [6],viable
alkaline activator solutions [1,2]. The binders have potential and geopolymer binders that are likely to present attractive and/or
scope for use in a wide range of applications beyond and besides substitutes to Portland cement have been reported in numerous
traditional civil engineering applications in paste, mortar and researches [7,8]. The new binder has attracted considerable inter-
concrete. Specialist applications may include use in aerospace, est in the past few decades due to its interesting physical, thermal
and structural properties [9]. Hassan et al. [10] in their review on
mechanical properties and microstructure of geopolymer concrete
⇑ Corresponding author.
for cleaner and sustainable environment concluded that the
E-mail address: nbillong@yahoo.fr (N. Billong).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122177
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Billong, J. Oti and J. Kinuthia Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122177

geopolymer binder may be attractive in terms of fire resistance reported study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of silica
compared to Portland cement-based concrete. Because of the fast fume-based sodium silicate in geopolymer production, using silica
setting times, coupled with rapid and early strength development, fume dissolved in a concentrated 10 M sodium hydroxide solution
geopolymer formulations are gaining new interest in specialist to obtain a Sodium Silicate Alternative (SSA). A SiO2/Na2O molar
applications such for use as binders in 3D printing techniques [11]. ratio of 2 was adopted for the design and the SSA produced was tri-
Rapid geopolymerization reactions take place when natural alled using two precursor alumino-silicate materials (PM): MK)
and/or artificial alumino-silicate precursors such as Ground Gran- and GGBS. The geopolymer pastes were produced using a mixture
ulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS), red mud, volcanic ash and cal- of 1:1 vol ratio for SSA and the 10 M sodium hydroxide solution to
cined clays react with alkaline solutions such as sodium form Alkaline Activator (AA). The AA/PM weight ratios of 1.5 and
hydroxide (Na-based activator) or potassium hydroxide (K-based 0.58 respectively were used for MK and GGBS pastes. Results were
activator) or the mixture of these hydroxide solutions and their compared to similar geopolymer binder formulations made with
corresponding silicate solutions [11–13]. Depending on the nature commercial sodium silicate (SSC) solution at the same SiO2/Na2O
of the precursor, Na-based activators have been observed to pro- molar ratio of 2. The subsequent analyses comprised of compar-
mote higher compressive strength, associated with more refined isons of engineering performance suggested by results from tests
pore structure compared to K-based activators [13], making for setting times of the fresh pastes, density, water absorption,
sodium silicate (also known as water glass), the more common compressive strength of hardened pastes after 3, 7 and 28 days,
and effective activator. and of tensile strength after 28 days of moist curing. In addition,
Studies have shown that while industrial waste ashes are re- analytical tests to enable formulation of hypotheses for the reac-
utilized to produce geopolymer at ambient temperatures, the tion products were carried out by comparing thermo-gravimetric
amount of greenhouse gas emitted to the environment may be and derivative thermo-gravimetric (TG/DTG) behaviour of hard-
lowered by 26–80% compared to Portland cement [10,14–17]. ened pastes at 28 days of moist curing, to temperatures of up to
Turner and Collins [18] indicated that CO2 emission of geopolymer 1000 °C.
concrete was 9% less than PC-based concrete. Differences between
studies arise due to proximity, availability and composition of raw
materials, energy/fuel types, concrete mixture compositions and 2. Materials and methods
manufacturing process for the alkaline activators used. Although
sodium silicate has been extensively used in alkaline activation, 2.1. Materials
it was however reported that its use significantly increases the
embodied energy and the CO2 emissions associated with the 2.1.1. Silica fume (SF)
geopolymer manufacturing process. This typically happens during The Silica Fume used in the study to produce SSA was an unden-
the calcination of a mixture of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and sified variety (USF) designated by a commercial code 971U of 97.1%
quartz (SiO2) at temperatures as high as 1400–1500 °C [19] to pro- purity and was manufactured by Elkem Silicon Materials in Nor-
duce standard commercial sodium silicate. This energy intensive way. SF is a by-product of the silicon and ferro-silicon industries.
and consequently costly manufacture of sodium silicate is one of The reduction of high purity quartz to silicon at temperatures of
the factors that can hinder the sustainability of geopolymer binder up to 2000 °C produces SiO vapour, which oxidizes and condenses
production and reduce its promotion compared to Portland cement at the low temperature zone to ultra-fine particles consisting of 85
[13,20]. Vinai and Soutsos [21] recently estimated that the to 99% non-crystalline silica (SiO2), also known as undensified sil-
cost of Alkali-Activated Concrete (AAC) varies from 41.2 £/m3 to ica fume [27,28]. SF is a highly reactive pozzolanic material having
66.92 £/m3, 19% lower to 48% higher compared to PC-based concrete. particles 100 times smaller than the average cement particles [28].
Therefore, the uptake of geopolymer binders as a sellable commodity The surface area of the particles varies from 13,000 to 30,000 kg/m2.
on a global basis will take time, if appropriate solutions are not When the undensified silica fume is collected, it is very light with
found to optimize the sustainability in their production process. bulk density ranging from 120 to 220 kg/m3. For storage, reduction
The development of alternative activators of reduced CO2 footprint of transport cost and dust pollution problems, the undensified
and less energy demand can increase the sustainability credentials material is densified to increase its bulk density to the range of
of geopolymer binders in concrete [5,19]. 400 to 720 kg/m3 [29]. This treatment is usually accomplished by
Past studies aiming to reduce or eliminate the use of energy tumbling silica fume particles in a silo, which causes surface
intensive sodium silicate in the production process of geopolymer charges to build up. These charges draw the particles together to
have showed potential viability. Kamseu et al. [22] researched on form agglomerates with consequences of increasing the density
the substitution of sodium silicate with rice husk ash (RHA) based and the embodied energy of the final material [30].
solution in metakaolin geopolymer cement. They concluded that
sodium silicate based on RHA, cured at room temperature in open
2.1.2. Precursor materials (PM)
air had characteristics like those of standard/commercial sodium
The alumino-silicate precursor materials used in the study com-
silicate at the equivalent bulk composition and SiO2/Na2O molar
prised of commercial metakaolin (MK) and Ground Granulated
ratio of 3.1. In a similar alternative approach, Tchakounte et al.
Blast furnace Slag (GGBS). The GGBS was manufactured by Civil
[23] obtained satisfactory results on metakaolin-based geopolymer
& Marine Ltd., in accordance to BS 15167-1 and MK was an indus-
production when they used alternative alkaline activators with
trial type of the Metastar 501 brand manufactured by IMERYS com-
SiO2/Na2O molar ratio of 1.5, made with waste glass and rice husk
pany in the UK.
ash. Further, Moraes al. [24] prepared sodium silicate by reacting
sugar cane straw ash with sodium hydroxide and obtained similar
results with Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS) based as 2.1.3. Chemicals
when rice husk ash was used. They included a commercial sodium silicate pellets with molar
There have not been many studies focussing on the use of silica ratio SiO2/Na2O = 2 from fisher scientific in the UK and a 10 M
fume as the source of amorphous and reactive silica for activators sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution obtained by dissolving the
raw material in geopolymer technology, even though this material appropriate mass (400 g per liter of water) of laboratory grade pel-
has shown numerous applications as an amorphous Supplemen- lets of NaOH (from Fisher Scientific UK, purity 97%) in de-ionized
tary Cementing Material [25,26]. For this reason, the currently water. The concentration of NaOH was chosen based on previous
2
N. Billong, J. Oti and J. Kinuthia Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122177

optimization works [12,31]. The solution was prepared 24 h before and 0.7 for GGBS (Table 2). These were the mixing ratios observed
its use and kept in a container with a lid. to provide minimum workable pastes. After homogenization, the
The chemical composition of raw materials was determined by fresh pastes were tested for initial and final setting times. In addi-
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, using a Bruker S4 Pioneer tion, 50  50 mm paste cubes and 8-shaped briquette gangs were
wavelengths dispersive (WD-XRF) spectrometer. X-ray diffraction prepared according to standard ASTM C 307-03 (2012). These were
(XRD) analysis was carried out on the MK, USF and GGBS materials for compressive and tensile strength tests respectively. The steel
at room temperature using a STOE Powder Diffraction System with molds were vibrated slightly to eliminate air bubbles, and the
operating conditions of CuKa sealed tube, operated at a radiation pastes then left to cure for 24 h in the molds at ambient tempera-
of 1.54060 nm. ture. After demolding, the hardened paste samples were kept in a
The characteristics of the input materials are shown in Table 1. container and allowed to moist cure at 23 ± 2 °C and at least 70%
SiO2 was observed as the major oxide in USF. MK consisted of SiO2 humidity.
and Al2O3 while GGBS had CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and MgO as major con-
stituents. The mineralogical analyses suggested that all the materi-
2.2.4. Characterization of fresh and hardened geopolymer pastes
als used were essentially amorphous in nature, as shown in Fig. 1.
The initial and final setting time tests of pastes was carried out
using an automatic penetrometer (Vicatronic) equipped with a
2.2. Methods
penetration needle, in accordance to EN 196-3 standard at the
ambient temperature of 23 ± 2 °C. Mixture constituents (PM and
2.2.1. Preparation of sodium silicate solutions (SSA and SSC)
AA) were mixed thoroughly during 3 min before performing the
The chemical Eq. (1) was used as the basis for the calculations of
test. Hardened 50  50 mm paste cubes underwent compressive
the proportions of mixture constituents to obtain SSA having SiO2/
strength measurement after 3, 7 and 28 days of moist curing, while
Na2O ratio of about 2.
others were tested for dry density and water absorption after
2SiO2 þ 2NaOH ! Na2 OðSiO2 Þ2 þ H2 O ð1Þ 28 days. The compressive strength test was performed using a
Denison 89,084 hydraulic press equipped with a Matest cyber-
According to Eq. (1) and considering i) the purity of USF with
plus data recorder at a load rate of 1.5 kN/s. The tensile strength
97.1% SiO2 content and ii) the molarity of the sodium hydroxide
of briquette gangs was tested after 28 days of curing using a Zwick
solution desired (10 M), 123.58 g of USF were mixed per 200 mL
Roell Z010 equipment at a rate of 1 mm/minute. The stress (in
of the 10 M NaOH solution. This figure was used as the basis to pro-
MPa) of test specimens were recorded as a function of their elon-
duce larger volumes of SSA. The mixture was left to react for 24 h
gation (in mm). The stress-elongation curves of samples having
in a closed container before subsequent use. The initial density of
the highest ultimate stress were compared. The water absorption
SSA (1.58 g/mL) was adjusted by a controlled addition of de-
(WA) of test specimens was carried out based on ASTM C642-13.
ionized water to obtain SSA having a density of 1.34 g/mL in accor-
Calculations were performed using Equation (2).
dance to previous study [22]. It is this final solution that was used
in experiments. Mh  Ms
The control solution (SSC) with the commercial sodium silicate WAð%Þ ¼  100 ð2Þ
Ms
was obtained by dissolving the equivalent of 1Kg of sodium silicate
pellets per 100 mL of de-ionized water. After 24 h of dissolution, Where Mh was the weight in grams of the specimen after immer-
controlled addition of de-ionized water was used to dilute the sion in water for 48 h and Ms its weight after drying at 105 °C for
solution to a similar density as SSA. 48 h.
Thermogravimetric analyses of test powders of hardened sam-
2.2.2. Preparation alkaline activators (AA) ples at 28 days up to 1000 °C were performed using a TA Instru-
The alkaline activator was prepared by mixing SSA or SSC with ments TGA 55 Discovery series apparatus.
the 10 M NaOH solution in volume proportion of 1:1. This is a com-
mon sodium silicate-sodium hydroxide mixing ratio in geopolymer
formulations [20]. 3. Results and discussion

2.2.3. Preparation geopolymer pastes and test specimens 3.1. Setting times of fresh geopolymer pastes
The alkaline activator was mixed with the precursor materials
(MK or GGBS) for 3 min using AA/PM weight ratios of 1.5 for MK The initial setting time of geopolymer paste is the time lapse
between the addition of AA and PM and the instant paste starts
to lose its plasticity. The final setting is obtained when the plastic-
Table 1 ity of the paste is completely lost. According to BS EN 196-3 stan-
Chemical composition and specific gravity of materials used in the study.
dard, the initial setting time is recorded when the penetration of
Oxide (wt%) MK USF GGBS the Vicat needle into the paste is 36 mm over 40 mm. The setting
SiO2 58.5 97.1 35.54 time test results for the various geopolymer pastes are indicated in
Al2O3 36.8 0.1 11.46 Fig. 2. It is seen that setting time of the pastes was influenced by
Fe2O3 0.61 0.2 0.42 the type of precursor material (MK or GGBS) and the nature of
CaO 0.71 – 37.99
the sodium silicate solution (SSA or SSC) used. In general, MK-
MgO 0.11 0.15 8.04
Na2O 0.31 – – based pastes performed lower initial setting time performance
K2O 2.0 – 0.43 compared to GGBS based pastes. When SSC was substituted by
TiO2 – 0.06 0;70 SSA in pastes, the difference in initial setting performance was
V2O5 – – 0.04 slight (3 and 2 min for MK-and GGBS based pastes respectively).
P2O5 – – 0.02
SO3 – 0.06 1.54
Including the mixing time, with MK-SSC pastes, the initial setting
Mn2O3 – – 0.43 time was achieved at about 33 min while that of MK-SSA happened
BaO – – 0.09 at 30 min. Concerning GGBS-SSC paste, the initial setting time was
L.O.I 0.11 0.08 2.00 at about 4 min while that of GGBS-SSA was at 6 min. The slight dif-
Specific gravity 2.50 2.20 2.85
ference between the reactivity of SSC and SSA in pastes appears to
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N. Billong, J. Oti and J. Kinuthia Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122177

Fig. 1. XRD patterns of MK, USF and GGBS showing the amorphous nature of all the materials.

Table 2
Details of the geopolymer pastes investigated.

Paste code Precursor material (PM) Silicate type AA/PM (wt. ratio)
MK-SSA MK SSA 1.5
MK-SSC MK SSC 1.5
GGBS-SSA GGBS SSA 0.7
GGBS-SSC GGBS SSC 0.7

suggest that SSA can substitute SSC in geopolymer pastes

formulation.

3.2. Characteristics of hardened geopolymer pastes Fig. 3. Densities of hardened of geopolymer pastes after 28 days of curing.

3.2.1. Density
The apparent density refers to the ratio of the mass and the vol- Higher densities were observed with GGBS-based geopolymer
ume occupied by a tested solid including hollow space. It depends pastes compared to MK-based pastes. The difference can partly
on the form of the constituent particles, the composition of the be explained by the difference in specific gravity between GGBS
solid components, and the storage method. Results of the apparent and MK which are 2.85 and 2.50 respectively. It could also due to
density measurement of hardened pastes are shown in Fig. 3. the high-water demand of the paste with metakaolin compared

Fig. 2. Setting times of fresh geopolymer pastes.

4
N. Billong, J. Oti and J. Kinuthia Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122177

to that made using GGBS in order to achieve a minimum workabil-

ity. The high-water content is associated with high porosity after
the drying process. There was no significant difference in apparent
density between pastes when SSA substituted SSC in the activator
geopolymer.

3.2.2. Compressive strength

Compressive strength result is presented in Fig. 4. A great differ-
ence was observed between the strength of hardened pastes con-
taining MK or GGBS. The GGBS-based mixtures demonstrated
higher compressive strength results compared to the MK-based
paste. This difference has been attributed in previous studies to
the differences in the binding system of the pastes. Since SiO2
and Al2O3 are the major compounds in MK and CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 Fig. 5. Stress-elongation curves of hardened geopolymer pastes at 28 days.
and MgO in GGBS, the MK and GGBS-based pastes binding systems
may be considered as (Si + Al) and (Si + Ca) respectively [32]. Dif-
ferences in mechanical performance can also due to the internal pastes was deemed to be typically of brittle materials with no plas-
micro-texture induced by the quantity of water used to achieve tic deformation. Within the minor variation that were observed,
good workability and prolonged strength. However, any excess the GGBS-based pastes made with SSA presented marginally lower
water can also affect the porosity of the paste and influence ultimate stress and elongation magnitudes compared to those
mechanical performance. For both MK- and GGBS-based geopoly- made using SSC. This order was reversed with the MK-based
mer pastes, the compressive strength increased with the curing pastes, with SSA pastes demonstrating marginally higher stress
duration. Pastes containing SSA showed marginally higher 28-day and elongation magnitudes.
strength compared to that with SSC for both precursor materials
used. However, the presence of SSC induced more rapid strength 3.2.4. Water absorption
gain compared to SSA. For GGBS-based pastes, about 72% of the Water absorption is a capacity of a material to absorb moisture
28-days strength was achieved at 7 days of curing using SSA while from its environment. It is related to the internal pore structure of
the equivalent was 88% using SSC. For MK-based pastes, strength the material and hence plays an important role in the permeability
development was additionally rapid, and the equivalent values of the material, and subsequent mechanical performance and dura-
were 79% and 92% respectively. Overall, compressive strength test bility [1]. The water absorption result of the geopolymer paste is
results appear to suggest that silica fume can be used to make a shown in Fig. 6. The GGBS-based pastes indicated lower water
sodium silicate alternative that can be utilised in viable geopoly- absorption compared to MK-based pastes. The results corroborate
mer binders and hence leading to improvement of the sustainabil- those of the density and of the compressive and tensile strength
ity of geopolymer binders. measurements. The high-water absorption of the MK system
agrees with the less dense and compact nature of the system, asso-
3.2.3. Tensile strength ciated with high internal porosity and high permeability compared
In addition to compressive strength, the tensile strength pro- to the GGBS system. There were no major differences in the water
vides information on the nature of the cross-linkages developed absorption of pastes containing SSA compared to pastes containing
in a material matrix. Tensile strength may also suggest the level SSC, hence demonstrating the applicability of the alternative
of densification of the matrix and its consequence on the method of producing sodium silicate for geopolymer from silica
microstructure features within the matrix [22]. In the present fume.
study, it was evaluated using stress-elongation curves shown in
Fig. 5. Within experimental variations, both MK and GGBS based
3.2.5. Thermogravimetric analysis
geopolymer pastes exhibited identical stress-stain paths, with only
Davidovits et al. [33] have reported the presence of three differ-
minor differences when SSA or SSC was used. Results in Table 3
ent types of water in hardened geopolymer pastes. These are: i)
show the maximum stresses and elongations achieved. The
water that is physically held in the microstructure. This is rela-
GGBS-based pastes failed at higher tensile stresses compared with
tively easily lost from ambient temperature to 100 °C due to dehy-
the MK based pastes, corroborating the trend observed with both
dration during heating of the geopolymer. From 60 to 70% of
density and compressive strength. The mode of failure in all the
reaction water in geopolymers is reportedly physically bonded,
and there is consequent significant weight loss depending on the
composition of the mixture; ii) water that is chemically bound
by H-bonds, and retained at the surface of hydroxylated silica
structures [34]. It is associated with weight losses taking place
above 100 °C and may continue to about 300 °C; iii) water from
hydroxyl groups (Si–OH, Al–OH, and Na–OH) [33]. It is lost as a
result of the de-hydroxylation of the silicate structures and takes
place above 300 °C.
With the above weight losses in consideration, Figs. 7 and 8
show the thermogravimetric results obtained from the reported
study. It is clearly noticed that the decomposition trend for both
pastes containing SSA or SSC is almost similar no matter the pre-
cursor material used, with a slight difference in the total weight
loss. With MK-based pastes, the total weight lost was 11.95% for
Fig. 4. Compressive strength of hardened geopolymer pastes at 3, 7 and 28 days of paste containing SSA and 11.68 for the paste containing SSC. In
curing. GGBS based pastes, the one containing SSA achieved about
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N. Billong, J. Oti and J. Kinuthia Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122177

Table 3 mechanical performance, the slightly higher total weight loss of

Ultimate tensile stresses and elongations of the geopolymer pastes. MK based geopolymer paste containing SSA is in accordance with
MK-SSA MK-SSA GGBS-SSA GGBS-SSC compressive strength results in which this type of paste presented
Ultimate stress (MPa) 0.94 0.88 1.32 1.61 better performances after 28 days of curing. The trends of thermo-
Elongation (mm) 2.36 2.11 2.44 2.90 grams of GGBS based geopolymer containing SSA and SSC showed
similarities with pastes containing SSA showing a slightly higher
total weight loss. In general, the thermograms of GGBS based
pastes consisted of four main weight loss changes. The change at
temperature below 100 °C can be attributed to the loss of the
remaining evaporable water in the materials. Differences in DTG
peaks of GGBS based pastes containing SSA or SSC can also be
explained by the difference in the pore structure induced by the
presence of SSA or SSC which can liberate the evaporable water
during heating in differently. Change between 100 and 200 °C
can be attributed to the loss of interlayer water of C-S-H and the
decomposition of ettringite [36]. Between 200 and 600 °C a weight
loss change observed can be due to the deshydroxylation process
of gels such as calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium
alumino-silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H). Binders consisting of these
two phases are found to have better compressive strength, giving
additional explanation on why GGBS-based geopolymer presented
better mechanical performances compared to MK-based geopoly-
Fig. 6. Water absorption of hardened geopolymer pastes at 28 days. mer [36]. The slight decomposition peak at about 900 °C can be
attributed to viscous sintering process of the alkali-activated
matrix and the decomposition of anhydrites like carbonates [37].
The thermal properties presented by the pastes were in accordance
12.88% weight loss while that with SSC presented 11.67 wt loss. with compressive strength results.
The difference in the nature of DTG peaks at temperature lower
or equal to 100 °C can be attributed to the differences in pore struc-
ture in the two materials which retained differently evaporable 4. Conclusions
water [35]. The similarity in the release of chemically bounded
water and water from hydroxyl groups from the geopolymization This research focussed on the study on the effectiveness of a sil-
process is evidenced by the overlapping of the TG thermograms ica fume-based sodium silicate in the development of physical and
of the paste with SSA and SSC at temperatures above 100 °C for mechanical performances in MK and GGBS based geopolymer
MK and GGBS based pastes. Since the difference in weight loss of pastes compared to a standard commercial sodium silicate. Unden-
metakaolin geopolymer is mainly attributed to the decomposition sified silica fume was used as raw material and the sodium silicate
of their different polycondensation sodium aluminosilicate hydrate solution investigated had SiO2/Na2O = 2. From the findings, it was
(NASH) type gel, the major binding gel, which is responsible of concluded that.

Fig. 7. Thermograms of MK based geopolymer pastes at 28 day.

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N. Billong, J. Oti and J. Kinuthia Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122177

Fig. 8. Thermograms of GGBS-based geopolymer pastes at 28 days.

The setting performance of GGBS and MK based geopolymer Declaration of Competing Interest
pastes did not differ significantly when silica fume-based
sodium silicate (SSA) was used compared to the standard com- The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
mercial version (SSC); cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared

Geopolymer pastes containing SSA showed slightly higher den- to influence the work reported in this paper.
sities and higher compressive strength compared to those using
SSC; Acknowledgements

In relation to the stress–strain properties of the geopolymer
pastes investigated, GGBS-based pastes made with SSA were The authors would like to thank the University of South Wales,
observed to show lower ultimate strength and lower elongation UK, for their internal Faculty financing through the Research
compared to those containing SSC. In contrast, MK-based Investment Strategy (RIS) project on the development of capacity
geopolymer pastes showed a reversal of this trend, with pastes for Inter-disciplinary Engineering Research into Advanced
containing SSA showing slightly higher ultimate tensile Materials.
strength and higher elongation before rupture;

MK and GGBS based geopolymer pastes showed similarities in
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