Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 65–72

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Construction and Building Materials

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Influence of recycled concrete aggregates on the engineering and

durability properties of alkali activated slag concrete
Kathirvel Parthiban ⇑, Kaliyaperumal Saravana Raja Mohan
School of Civil Engineering, SASTRA University, Thanjavur 613 401, India

h i g h l i g h t s

AAS concrete can be used as sustainable construction material.

Engineering and durability properties were investigated.

Curing under ambient temperature may enhance its application in cast in-situ conditions.

AAS concrete with 50% RCA content shows superior mechanical and durability properties.

AAS concrete made of 100% RCA content shows superior properties than OPC concrete.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The environmental effects of production of cement have provoked to examine the growth of concrete
Received 15 July 2016 with 100% replacement of cement with materials which are activated by alkali solutions. Alkali activated
Received in revised form 7 November 2016 slag (AAS) concrete is eco-friendly and potentially deemed to be a division of sustainable process. As
Accepted 14 December 2016
majority of the volume of concrete is consumed by aggregates, there is a necessary to decrease the uti-
Available online 22 December 2016
lization of natural aggregates resulting in reduction of exploiting natural resources and effective utiliza-
tion of construction and demolition waste. The effect of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) on the
Keywords:
engineering and durability properties of alkali activated slag concrete (AASC) under ambient curing state
Geopolymer concrete
Alkali activated slag
has been investigated in this paper. Since, very few works were carried in the field of alkali activated slag
Recycled concrete aggregate concrete curing under ambient temperature state and the utilization of recycled aggregates, an investi-
Ambient temperature gation was performed in AASC mixes with varying RCA fraction to study their influence on strength (com-
Sustainable material pressive, splitting tensile and flexural) and durability (absorption, sorptivity, chloride and sulphate
exposure) properties of AASC. The outcome of the results concludes that the addition of RCA has no sig-
nification reduction in the properties of alkali activated slag concrete.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is used as energy source. Conversely, the making of commercial

through-products releases fewer amounts of green house gases
The increasing demand for concrete due to the growing (GHG) comparing to PC. Fly ash produces 80–90% [2] and slag pro-
demands of infrastructure has led to the increased production of duces 80% [3] less GHG emission to the atmosphere compared with
Portland cement (PC). With the intention of curtailing the utiliza- PC. The mix of sodium or potassium hydroxide with sodium or
tion of PC as a binder, geological source materials with rich amount potassium silicate has been broadly utilized as an alkaline activator
of silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al) content can be an alternative arrangement [4–7]. The utilization of recycled concrete aggregate
source or an industrial by-product like fly ash, ground granulated (RCA) in concrete is gaining momentum. Vast measure of devas-
blast furnace slag, etc. to react with an alkaline solution and the tated concrete is produced as waste and is arranged off by dump-
chemical reaction shaped is of polymerization products termed ing it as landfill or off recovering the area. But the cost of
as Geopolymers was first established by Davidovits in 1978. Lawr- transportation and the shortage of dumping grounds make dis-
ence [1] stated that 1tonne of carbon dioxide (CO2) is released to posal a major problem [8]. As a further scope towards the use of
the atmosphere in the manufacture of 1tonne of PC if carbon fuel waste concrete, the concrete rubble is being used as a substitute
for natural aggregate have shown that RCA can best be used as a
⇑ Corresponding author. substitute for coarse aggregate only [9]. As understood, the cement
E-mail address: parthiban@civil.sastra.edu (K. Parthiban). paste from demolished concrete can bind chlorides, however the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.050
0950-0618/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
66 K. Parthiban, K. Saravana Raja Mohan / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 65–72

existence of sulphates can hinder this process as they are power- der. The degree of hydration is mainly influenced by the hydration
fully bound [10], hence, RCA can add to binding of chlorides, yet modulus, which was found to be 2.04 and should exceed 1.4 [23].
the stability of this maintenance is essential, so RCA without chlo-
rides and sulphates must be utilized. The curing temperature or 2.1.3. Activator solution
the temperature at which the underlying response plays a crucial A variety of activators was utilized in the past research and the
part in the improvement of strength that can be accomplished by majority of them confirmed that the sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) [24]
curing it above room temperature [11–13]. The quality was with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) activation fallout with superior
enhanced at a curing temperature of 50-80 °C instead of at room strength. GGBFS was alkali activated by the use of commercially
temperature [14]. The polymerization response turns out to be available sodium hydroxide in the form of flakes (99% purity)
exceptionally quick with expansion in curing temperature and and sodium silicate solution (SiO2-28%, Na2O-11.2% by mass). The
the solid can pick up strength of 70% inside 3–4 h of curing modulus of silica, which is the ratio between SiO2 and Na2O, was
[11,15] and the higher early strength was accomplished when cur- calculated as 2.5.
ing at 65 °C and there was no critical increment in the strength fol-
lowing 28 days [16]. The compressive strength, elastic modulus
2.1.4. Aggregates
and water permeability depends on solution to ash ratio and paste
The fine and the coarse aggregates were equipped in accordance
to aggregate ratio [17]. As there was a minimum study focused on
with ASTM C33/C33M [25] and their moisture condition was found
the geopolymer concrete made of recycled concrete aggregate and
to be in saturated surface dry (SSD) state. Graded river sand was
cured under room temperature condition, this investigation was
used as fine aggregate with a nominal maximum size of
done to evaluate the influence of RCA on the engineering and dura-
4.75 mm, coarse aggregate of crushed granite type natural aggre-
bility characteristics of AASC cured under ambient temperature
gates (NA) and recycled aggregate derived from the laboratory cast
condition. The flexural behavior of reinforced geopolymer concrete
concrete of 2 year old concrete waste with a nominal size of 16 mm
(GPC) beams containing RCA was already studied by the authors
were used as aggregates and their test results are given in Table 2.
[18] whereas the issues regarding strength and durability proper-
The mortar content present in the RCA samples was estimated by a
ties were not addressed. Hence, this paper at the inception pro-
modified acid treatment method as recommended in Akbarnezhad
vides an outline of the experimental investigation integrating
et al. [26]. In this technique, 1 kg of recycled aggregates were
materials & their characteristics, their proportioning and experi-
soaked in 2 M sulphuric acid solution for 5 days until the mortar
mental mechanism. It was then pursued by an elaborated discus-
present on the surface of the aggregates are completely removed,
sion on the obtained results, where the effect of addition of RCA
which is then washed and sieved through 4.75 mm sieve to sepa-
on the engineering (compressive strength, splitting tensile
rate the detached mortar from the aggregates. The mortar content
strength & flexural strength) and durability (water absorption &
can be measured by the rate of change of weight of the aggregates,
volume of voids, sorptivity, resistance to chloride and sulphate
which was measured to be in the range of 12 to 20% with a pH
attack) properties are offered in conjunction with added significant
value of 11.5. The recycled aggregates used in the tests is shown
elucidations.
in Fig 1 and the range of recycled aggregates were fixed such that
the grading (Fig 2) of the natural and recycled aggregates is similar.

2. Materials and methods

2.1.5. Superplasticizer (SP)
The use of superplasticizer has significant effect on overcoming
2.1. Materials
the hitch in the reduction of workability of AASC when equipped
with recycled aggregates and early setting time has been signifi-
2.1.1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
cantly reduced with the use of superplasticizer [27] resulting
53 grade Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) acquired from the
may improve the mechanical characteristics of GPC. The superplas-
local supplier was used in this study. The specific gravity was
ticizers of polycarboxylic ether type has been employed in this
found to be 3.05 and its chemical composition is listed in Table 1.
work with a pH of 6, relative density of 1.08 at 25 °C with less than
2% chloride content, as it may be well suited for sodium activated
2.1.2. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) geopolymers with their best plasticizing effect comparing with
The most common cementitious material for AAS binder is other commercial types [28].
GGBFS [19] as its hydraulic activity is high as compared with the
other types [20,21] which can be measured by the basicity coeffi- 2.2. Preparation of GPC mixes
cient, which is the ratio between the total basic contents and acidic
contents. GGBFS acquired from the nearby steel plant with 29 lm To make RCA in surface saturated condition, they were pre-
mean particle size, specific surface area of 1.56m2/g and specific wetted and saturated [29,30] before mixing with the purpose of
gravity of 2.90 was used as geopolymer source material (GSM). reducing the effect of reduced workability when employed with
From the chemical composition of GGBFS presented in Table 1, RCA as well as to afford an enhanced bond with cement. NaOH
the basicity coefficient was found to be 0.98 (less than 1) thereby flakes were diluted in distilled water and kept under room temper-
the GGBFS was categorized under acidic nature can be best suited ature for 24 h to reduce the quick setting of the AASC mixes due to
as a starting substance for alkali activated slag binder. The ratio of evolution of excessive heat. The concentration of NaOH solution
CaO/SiO2 is 1.18 (between 0.5 and 2.0) and Al2O3/SiO2 is 0.56 was fixed at 14 M, which was then mixed with Na2SiO3 solution
(between 0.1 and 0.6) [22] which makes GGBFS best suited as bin- to have an alkaline ratio of 2.0. The NaOH concentration of 14 M

Table 1
Chemical composition of OPC and GGBFS.

Oxide CaO SiO2 Al2O3 MgO SO3 Fe2O3 Na2O K2O

OPC (%) 63.12 24.52 6.88 2.16 1.43 3.51 0.44 0.63
GGBFS (%) 36.77 30.97 17.41 9.01 1.82 1.03 0.69 0.46
 K. Parthiban, K. Saravana Raja Mohan / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 65–72 67

Table 2 2.3. Testing mechanism

Properties of aggregates used in the mixes.

Properties Natural Coarse aggregate Slump cone test was used to evaluate the workability of the
sand
Crushed granite Demolished concrete mixes following ASTM C143/C143 M [32]. The compressive
type waste strength and splitting tensile strength were determined using
Bulk density (kg/ 1696 1485 1269
cylindrical specimens of size 100 mm dia. and 200 mm height as
m3) per ASTM C39/C39 M [33] and ASTM C496/C496 M [34] respec-
Specific gravity 2.58 2.72 2.44 tively. The flexural strength of the mixes was determined in accor-
Water absorption 1.37 0.77 3.92 dance with ASTM C293/C293 M [35] using prismatic samples of
(%)
size 100  100  400 mm. The total porosity and water absorption
Abrasion (%) – 14.2 20.3
were calculated according to ASTM C642 [36] with the cubes spec-
imens of 100 mm size. The capillary sorptivity was assessed by
using 100 mm dia. and 50 mm height cylindrical discs following
the standard specifications as per ASTM C1585 [37]. The chloride
ion diffusion was measured using salt ponding test similar to the
test prescribed in AASHTO T259 [38]. The cylindrical specimens
(Ø100 mm x 200 mm) were casted and cured under ambient tem-
perature condition. After 28 days of curing, the side face of the
cylinders were coated with epoxy and sealed around the outer
edge to allow the chloride solution with 3% NaCl (0.52 N) to stag-
nate continuously for a height of 15 mm for 3 months. The top sur-
face was covered with plastic wrap to reduce the effect of
evaporation loss and extra solution was further poured at regular
intervals to sustain the 15 mm height. Following exposure period,
the NaCl solution was removed and the cylinders were dried, fol-
lowed by brushing the top surface of the cylinders till the crystals
of salt were completely removed. The chloride profile of the cylin-
drical specimens was obtained by cutting the surface exposed to
NaCl solution into number of slices. These segments were allowed
to dry at 105 °C to maintain a steady mass and after that powdered
with a maximum size of 300l and further analysis for the chloride
content has been carried out as per AASHTO T260 [39]. The pow-
dered samples were used to find the total chloride content (free
Fig. 1. Sample of RCA used in the tests. and bound chlorides) with the potentiometric titration as per Nord
test method [40]. The powdered samples were weighed for 5 g and
digested in concentrated HNO3 (6 N) solution along with deionized
water and shaked in a sieve shaker for about one hour, filtered
using double filter paper (Whatman filter paper No.1), the residue
was then mixed with 25 ml of silver nitrate (0.02 N of AgNO3) with
2 ml nitrobenzene as indicator and 1 ml ferric alum. The resulting
solution was titrated against ammonium thiocyanate (0.02 N NH4-
SCN) until the solution turns weakly red colour and the total chlo-
ride content (%) by weight of concrete were calculated by (Eq. (1)):

 V 1 N1  V 2 N2
Total Chloride ContentðCl Þ ¼ 3:545  ð1Þ
m
where V1 and N1 are the volume and normality of AgNO3 solution
added, V2 and N2 are the volume and normality of ammonium thio-
cyanate added. The resistance to sulphate attack was evaluated fol-
lowing the ASTM C88 [41]. Concrete cylinders having 100 mm dia.
and 50 mm height were prepared and cured for 28 days under
ambient temperature condition. The test solutions utilized in this
study were 5% sodium and magnesium sulphate solution. The mass
percentages of the sulphate solutions were maintained at different
level in order to maintain the same concentration of SO2- 4 in both
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of the aggregates. sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate solutions. The solutions
were changed periodically in order to maintain the same concentra-
tion throughout the exposure period. After 28 days curing, the ini-
and alkaline ratio of 2.0 were fixed, since this was observed to pro- tial observations were made and the specimens were immersed in
duce superior strength based on the previous study conducted by Na and Mg sulphate environment for 3 months at ambient condi-
the authors [31]. The ratio of activator solution-GSM was taken tions. The dimensions and mass variations were checked at regular
as 0.50 and the amount of superplasticizer was fixed as 2% by intervals and repeated for a period of 3 months. Then the samples
weight of GSM for the mixes with RCA. All the mixes were cast were dried and the measurement of the dimensions and the varia-
and cured in room temperature with a temperature range of 26 tion in the mass were determined. In addition to these, the strength
to 30 °C and relative humidity range of 55 to 71%. The details of of the specimens was determined using compression test and the
the mix proportioning are given in Table 3. results were compared with that of the reference specimens.
68 K. Parthiban, K. Saravana Raja Mohan / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 65–72

Table 3
Mix proportioning of AAS concrete mixes with varying RCA content.

Label Cement GGBFS Sand NA RCA Water NaOH solution Na2SiO3 solution SP
3
(kg/m )
OPC 414 0 515 956 0 207 0 0 0
AAS0 0 414 515 956 0 0 69 138 0
AAS25 0 414 515 717 239 0 69 138 8.3
AAS50 0 414 515 478 478 0 69 138 8.3
AAS75 0 414 515 239 717 0 69 138 8.3
AAS100 0 414 515 0 956 0 69 138 8.3

3. Results and discussions with decreased amount of liquid to finish the process of hydration
results in reduced slump and reduction in strength.
3.1. Engineering properties
3.1.3. Splitting tensile strength
3.1.1. Workability The splitting tensile strength results of the mixes after 28 days
The slump values were observed to reduce with the increase in curing at various replacement levels of natural aggregates with
the RCA volume. It was found to be 120 mm for OPC and that of for RCA is shown in Fig 4. The strength at 100% replacement level pro-
the AASC mixes were 117, 116, 112, 109 and 106 with 0, 25, 50, 75 duces a splitting tensile strength of 4.33 MPa, which is more than
and 100% level of replacement of natural aggregates with RCA. The 0% replacement level infers that the splitting tensile strength is
reason for the reduction in the slump with the increase in the vol- not extensively influenced by the inclusion of RCA. Similar obser-
ume of RCA is mainly owing to the increase in the volume of voids vations were made by Poon [43] and Sagoe-Crentsil [29] for
with the increasing RCA content. The use of superplasticizer has a cement concrete made with recycled aggregates.
greater influence in the workability property with the increasing Based on the experimental results, the relationship between
recycled aggregate content, resulting in lesser amount of reduction split tensile strength (f t ) and the 28 days compressive strength
0
in slump at higher RCA content. (f c ) of the alkali activated slag concrete mixes expressed in MPa
were given in Eq.2 and Eq. (3) is made by ACI 318 [44]:
qffiffiffiffi
0
3.1.2. Compressive strength f t ¼ 0:62 f c ð2Þ
The compressive strength results and their variation are given
qffiffiffiffi
in Fig 3. The 7 days results were observed to be more than 70% 0
f t ¼ 0:56 f c ð3Þ
of its corresponding 28 days strength. The compressive strength
at 25% replacement level was found to be 10% more than at 0% The experimental results of the split tensile results were found
replacement level and a further increment of 5% at 50% replace- to be more than the predicted results as per ACI 318 codal provi-
ment level and thereafter the strength reduced up to 1% and 17% sion. This may be due to the improved performance of the alkali
for 75% and 100% replacement level respectively. The 28 days activated concrete compared with the cement concrete mixes.
strength reduction factor was observed to get diminished than
the corresponding 7 days strength and this is because of the 3.1.4. Flexural strength
enhanced formation of geopolymer gels over the course, which The flexural strength results of the mixes after 28 days curing at
seals the voids present in the surface results in solid matrix. The various replacement levels of natural aggregates with recycled
development in the compressive strength of the mixes made of aggregates is shown in Fig 5. The results were found to be 4.84,
AASC up to 50% replacement of natural aggregate with RCA is 5.29, 5.28, 5.18 and 4.51 MPa at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% replacement
ascribed to the unhydrated residual binder on RCA, that shall be levels of natural aggregates with RCA respectively. The flexural
enacted amid the blending progression brings out enhanced strength at 75% replacement level was found to be more than the
strength [42]. Additionally, the ideal results might be because of strength at 0% replacement level. This improved performance
the enhanced aggregates packing and filling impact of slag on mainly due to the angular shape of the RCA used in the mix, which
RCA. With the increase in the volume of RCA, fines get increased produces better flexural strength than with round shaped aggre-
gates [45].

Fig. 3. Compressive strength results of the tested mixes. Fig. 4. Split tensile strength results of the tested mixes.
 K. Parthiban, K. Saravana Raja Mohan / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 65–72 69

in this work was in SSD condition, which may reduce the absorp-
tion greatly.

3.2.2. Sorptivity
The sorptivity curves achieved for the AASC mixes at the age of
28 days curing for varying RCA content are shown in Fig 7. Similar
to the mixes made of natural aggregates, the rate of absorption of
the mixes with RCA also was found to decrease over the course of
time and there was no momentous increase in the absorption rate
after 30 min for mostly all the samples. This may be due to the
superior matrix in AASC than the conventional cement concrete.
It has also been noted that the amount of absorption increases with
enhanced RCA volume. This behavior was similar to the cement
concrete mixes made of RCA.
Fig. 5. Flexural strength results of the tested mixes.
The rate of absorption increases with the increase in the volume
of RCA. This is mainly due to the increased amount of pores in the
Based on the experimental results, the relationship between matrix with the increasing RCA volume. The AASC mixes with RCA
0 has considerably reduced absorption capacity which is mainly due
flexural strength (f r ) and the 28 days compressive strength (f c ) of
to the absence of osmosis pressure created by the RCA in cement
the alkali activated slag concrete mixes expressed in MPa were
concrete [47]. The rate of absorption also found to reduce with
given in Eq.4 and Eq. (5) is made by ACI 318:
the increase in the duration of curing which is mainly due to the
qffiffiffiffi
0 less heat of hydration in AASC mixes compared to OPC mixes.
f r ¼ 0:70 f c ð4Þ
The reaction due to hydration actuates the self-parching of the
qffiffiffiffi adhered cement paste and resulting in reduction of capillary pores
0 [48].
f r ¼ 0:62 f c ð5Þ

Similar to the split tensile strength results, the flexural strength

3.2.3. Chloride diffusion
results also shows superior performance compared with the pre-
The amount of chloride present at various depths of the speci-
dicted results as per ACI 318 code.
mens for varying content is shown in Fig 8. It was examined that
the chloride content decreases with the increase in the depth of
3.2. Durability properties the concrete specimens. There is a slight increase in the maximum
depth of penetration with the increasing volume of RCA, which
3.2.1. Water absorption and volume of voids might because of the amount of pore present at the new ITZ
The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) for the concrete prepared between the new mortar and RCA, with the increasing RCA content
using RCA and Slag can be enhanced by utilizing alkali activated [49]. This paves the way for the aggressive chloride ion to pene-
slag [46] which will densify the microstructure and this may most trate through the pores and the looser structure in the mortar
likely elucidate the advancements achieved for RCA with slag. The attached on the surface of RCA [50]. This behavior is found to be
improved performance of the concrete made with RCA over the analogous to that of the cement concrete casted with RCA. The
course of time is mainly due to the presence of superior surface superior performance of the AASC mixes with RCA against the
porosity of RCA which are filled with the fresh paste, thereby chloride penetration may be due to lesser amount of water absorp-
improving the microstructure of the ITZ among new paste and tion of RCA. This is in agreement with the work carried out by
coarse RCA. Thus the mix results in improved bond strength Otsuki [51] where the slight inferior quality of concrete made with
thereby reducing the absorption competence of the AASC mixes. RCA with that of NA against chloride penetration using RCA with
Fig 6 shows the distinction among absorption capacity and volume water absorption of 4.5%.
of voids with varying amount of RCA content. The superior perfor- The chloride diffusion coefficient (CDC) values for different
mance of the GPC mixes with increasing RCA content is mainly due replacement levels of natural aggregates with RCA are shown in
to the adhered mortar on the RCA and its nature. The RCA utilized

Fig. 6. Absorption characteristics of the tested mixes. Fig. 7. Sorptivity results for the tested mixes.
70 K. Parthiban, K. Saravana Raja Mohan / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 65–72

Fig. 10. Weight variations of the specimens under sodium and magnesium sulphate
exposure.
Fig. 8. Chloride content profile for the tested mixes.

Fig 9. The CDC values were found to gradually increase up to 50%

replacement level and there after increases abruptly for 75 and
100% replacement levels. The slight deviation in the trend with
that of the water absorption characteristics was mainly due to
the prolonged ponding of the chloride solution over the concrete
specimens where the rate of deterioration increases over the
course of time, which increases the rate of penetration with the
increasing volume of RCA content.

3.2.4. Sulphate resistance

The sulphate resistance of AASC mixes prepared with varying
replacement levels of natural aggregates with RCA has been carried
out by immersing the specimens on 5% Na2SO4 and 5% MgSO4 solu- Fig. 11. Strength variations of the specimens under sodium and magnesium
sulphate exposure.
tions over a period of 90 days after 28 days of curing under ambi-
ent temperature condition. The percentage reduction in weight
higher resistance of AASC mixes even with higher RCA replacement
and percentage reduction in strength of the specimens after
level is mainly due to the formation of aluminosilicate polymeric
90 days were measured and their variation are shown in Fig 10
system which has no free lime in their matrix which makes them
and 11. It was observed that the specimens immersed in Na2SO4
superior against sulphate ions [53].
solution shows exposition of grains alone whereas the specimens
From Fig 11, it was observed that the percentage reduction in
in MgSO4 solutions shows both exposition and dissolved alumi-
strength of the mixes under sodium sulphate exposure was
nosilicate matrix, which implies the rigorousness of Mg ions [52].
observed to be 5.89, 6.63, 7.93, 9.24 and 10.58% at 0, 25, 50, 75
From Fig 10, it has been observed that the percentage reduction
and 100% replacement of natural aggregates with RCA respectively.
in the weight of the specimens increases with the increasing vol-
Under magnesium sulphate exposure, these values were observed
ume of RCA despite sodium or magnesium sulphate exposure.
to be 6.09, 7.26, 8.59, 11.73 and 14.32%. The strength reduction fac-
The percentage reduction in the weight of the specimens under
tor increases with the increasing RCA content and found to be more
sodium sulphate exposure was found to be 0.68, 0.90, 1.63, 2.25
in the case of magnesium sulphate exposure comparing to sodium
and 3.13% for 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% replacement of natural aggre-
sulphate exposure. This reduction with the increasing RCA content
gates with RCA, whereas this was observed to be 2.37, 3.00, 4.10,
might be associated with the cement particles binding over the
4.96 and 6.34% in the case of magnesium sulphate exposure. The
RCA which reacts with the sulphates resulting in the formation
of deteriorating factors such as gypsum and ettringite which
reduces the strength of the mixes. The increase in the reduction
percentage of strength with increasing RCA content is primarily
because of the adhered cement mortar on the surface of the RCA,
which when reacts with sulphate ions forms the deleterious sub-
stances resulting in reduced strength [54,55].

4. Conclusions

This paper explains about the engineering and durability char-

acteristics of alkali activated slag concrete made with recycled con-
crete aggregate derived from construction and demolition waste.
From the results attained from the experiments and their discus-
sions, the following conclusions can be made:

1. With the inclusion of chemical admixture, the abrupt drop in

the slump value with the increase in the RCA content has been
Fig. 9. Chloride diffusion coefficient values for the tested mixes. greatly avoided.
 K. Parthiban, K. Saravana Raja Mohan / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 65–72 71

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