Annales de Chimie - Science des Matériaux

Vol. 48, No. 2, April, 2024, pp. 197-206

Journal homepage: http://iieta.org/journals/acsm

Investigating the Influence of Recycled Coarse Aggregate and Steel Fiber on the Rheological
and Mechanical Properties of Self-Compacting Geopolymer Concrete
Mohammed Wadi Aljumaili1* , Salmia Binti Beddu1 , Zarina Itam1 , Jumah Musdif Their2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, University Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Kuala Lumpur 40673, Malaysia
2
Anbar Education Directorate, Ministry of Education, Ramadi 31001, Iraq

Corresponding Author Email: PE20940@student.uniten.edu.my; Eng.abtan@gmail.com

Copyright: ©2024 The authors. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

https://doi.org/10.18280/acsm.480206 ABSTRACT

Received: 4 December 2023 This experimental study presents the effect of steel fiber (SF) and recycled coarse
Revised: 1 April 2024 aggregate (RCA) on the fresh and hardened properties of Self-compacting geopolymer
Accepted: 8 April 2024 concrete (SCGC). Sixteenth alkali-activated based metakaolin (MK) concrete mixtures
Available online: 30 April 2024 with constant binder content of 500 kg/m3 incorporated 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% volume
fraction of SF and 0, 10, 20, and 30% RCA as a partially replacement for natural coarse
aggregate (NCA) with sodium hydroxide concentration of 12 Molarity at ambient
Keywords: conditions. Fresh state of SCGC were examined slump flow, T500 flow, V-funnel, and L-
metakaolin, recycled aggregates, self- box test. At 28 and 90 days the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength were
compacting geopolymer concrete, steel fiber, investigated, the flexural strength was evaluated at 90 days. The results highlighted that
sustainability RCA (30%) and SF (1.5%) significantly constrain the fresh properties of SCGC mixes.
Moreover, SCGC incorporated RCA can be produced with compressive strength as high
as 31.91-41.13 at 28 and 90 days, respectively. However, 1% SF and 30% RCA in MK-
based SCGC appear better performance than the control mixture and leads to an
ecologically friendly concrete mix that has appropriate hardening properties and that
would contribute to the longevity of the construction industry.

1. INTRODUCTION reactions of alumina substances plus unformed silica together

1with alkali, which makes shapeless binders of aluminosilicate
One of central industries that adds to emissions of [9]. Slag and fly ash could comprise geopolymer. These are
greenhouse gases is the concrete production industry [1]. It has secondary substances, or products from geological origins like
been figured out that manufacturing of cements results in straw, wheats, ashes, and MK [9]. GP may be implemented in
emissions of large amount of carbon dioxides CO2, both in the construction industries, used as filler materials, due to its
direct and indirect ways [2] owing to the burning of fossil fuels fireproof qualities [10]. MK is a new mixed-pozzolanic
and heating of limestone to make cement, which is done supplemental cementitious substance [11], that is different
through the process of calcination [3]. Various researches were than other available supplemental cementitious materials
presented on the previously-stated components where because it is made under a controlled environment [12]. As a
different technique and method were used and controlled to result of MK significant reactivity and due to compatible ratio
lower productions of carbon on a global scale [4]. Utilizing of silica to alumina which are essential factor for
supplemental cementitious material (SCM) as partially geopolymerization, MK was classified in the last ten years as
substitute of traditional cement material [5], or the process of an effective substance for the composition of GP binder [13].
an entirely advanced binders, which does not include cement, MK could be thought of as an acceptable precursor for the GP
called geopolymers (GPs), are highly effective in fulfilling the manufacturing due to the knowable characteristic and
objective of reducing carbon. GPs are yet a developed reactivity through the GP production [10]. Researches
cementitious materials produced by the blending base assessed the MK-geopolymers as substitute binder instead of
materials to high quantity of silica and alumina [6]. A cement [14]. Studies have figured out that metakaolin
reduction in the flow of CO2 by involving geological products significantly increases the compressive strengths, as mixing of
in concretes are probably the essential goal for the nascent 8% of MK produced increment in the concrete compressive
interests in GPs when compared with various concrete types strengths by more than 40% in 28 days [15]. Metakaolin has
[7]. Taking advantage of GPs instead of consuming cement favorable impression on both the fresh and hardened property
concretes in order to decrease the outflowing of CO2 is very of concrete and has been shown to inhibit drying shrinkage
matter in the presented research [8]. GPs are aluminosilicate [16].
binder, in another side slag and fly ash-based material To ensure the required durability and strengths durability of
comprise huge calcium contents that called alkali-activated traditional concretes, compactions are necessary. The quality,
substances. Geopolymerization might be defined as the durability, and strength are dramatically affected by

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insufficient compactions [17]. Normal concrete has issues in Using recycled aggregate leads to concrete with low
terms of compaction, but to bypass that, self-compacting durability; so that, it is important to include the fibers in the
concrete (SCC) was introduced as substitute of normal concrete [32]. There is no extensive information available in
concrete [18]. Geopolymer concrete also naturally has a high the literature about the combined utilization of SF and RCA in
viscosity and is less workable. In order to solve the high the metakaolin-based self-compacting geopolymer concrete
viscosity problem, SCGCs were developed in 2011. SCC does which demonstrates the novelty of this research. The aim of
not need any compactions process it flows and settles by its this research is to have a sustainable concrete with improved
own weights. SCC is characterized and evaluated by the properties by adding steel fiber and recycled aggregate to
capabilities to resist segregation, ability to slow, and settle. evaluate the various aspects of geopolymer composites. This
Coarse aggregate (CA) volume should be a maximum of 20 study will determine the suitability of recycled aggregate and
mm when used for SCC production [19]. steel fiber in geopolymer concrete. The mechanical and fresh
The cement industry is expected to move closer to characteristics were assessed. Our research assists by making
developing sustainable materials for construction by taking the construction and concrete industry sustainable due to
advantage of the benefits offered by combining geopolymer making cement-free concrete.
binders and RCA waste. During the last several years, various
reports on geopolymer composite properties, when formed
from recycled aggregate, have been written and published. A 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
large number of researchers concluded successful applications
of RCA interpolymer concrete [20]. The use of RCA reduces 2.1 Materials
the demand for natural aggregates in engineering structures by
reducing the consumption of non-renewable natural resources. MK, as illustrated in Figure 1, is applied as the base
Moreover, solves the problem of environmental pollution substance, that had prepared in calcining the kaolin. Kaolin
caused by waste concrete. Consequently, it has attracted a lot clays were collected from Al-Anbar, Iraq. The kaolin was first
of attention from both the environmental and resource grinded and afterward burned in a furnace at 700℃±20℃, for
preservations [21]. Recently, fine RCA has also been used for one hour, to form metakaolin. In the experimental program X-
manufacturing geopolymer mortar [22]. Mohseni et al. [23] ray diffraction (XRD) spectra analyses and Scanning electron
assessed the impact of RCA on self-compacting concrete microscopy (SEM) were carried out on MK as shown in Figure
which has also been reinforced with fiber. The utilization of 2 and Figure 3. The physical properties and chemical
the wastes of constructions can consequentially improves the compositions of MK are completely suitable to meet the
sustainability of the construction industry. According to the specifications of Pozzolan ASTM C618 [33], which are
results, RCAs are eco-friendly materials that may be utilized figured out within Table 1. The alkaline or basic solution used
in constructions and that also had adequate mechanical for the SCGC mixtures is a composition of sodium silicate
behavior in the comparison with traditional concrete, made (Na2SiO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions, which are
with the addition of natural aggregate. On the other hand, due involved as an activator for the mix. The chemical
to the fact that RCA is not as strong as natural aggregate [24], compositions of the Na2SiO3 solution are (Na2O=10.600%,
the geopolymer composite made by incorporating RCA shows SiO2=26.500% and density=1.390g/ml at 25.00℃). Along
a less optimal performances compared with natural aggregates with that, NaOH in the form of flakes (98.00% purity) was
incorporation. The compressive strengths of GP went down by used. The alkaline solution was formed 24 hours before
approximately 7-24% when coarse RCA utilized, compared to utilization. A superplasticizer based on a formulation of a
when natural aggregates were used [25]. In addition, RCA’s polycarboxylic-ether mix, with a specific gravity of 1.08±0.02
inclusion into geopolymer mortar also decreased the acid and a pH value of 7±1 was utilized in all mixtures for attaining
resistance of the composite, not just its mechanical the necessary slump value for fresh SCGC.
characteristics and properties [22]. Moreover, when Fine steel fibers were utilized in the experimental program
triceratopses do not have any reinforcements, their ability to to improve the SCGC ductility. The steel fibers shown in
respond to tensions stress is significantly decreased, and if the Figure 4 are straight and copper-coated 13 mm in length and
tension and elasticity exceed their maximum limits (30GPa), 0.20 mm in diameter. The fibers’ properties are illustrated in
first micro-crack appears in the concrete elements, then macro Table 2.
crack, failures happen finally [26]. Steel corrodes if water and
various unwanted materials enter the cracks. Consequentially,
the micro-crack plays significant roles in the durability of
concretes [27].
Additions of fibers into cementitious materials is one way
to improve their performance. It has been established that fiber
usage in cements-base mixtures is extremely useful in the
developing the resistance of concrete against the micro- and
macro-cracks [28]. Various types of fibers are accessible
commercially like nylon, glasses, steel, and synthetic and
nature fibers [29]. It was found that steel fibers or strand or
fibers have a positive effect on the bending strengths of the GP
composite [30]. In yet another research piece, the researchers
incorporated steel strands into fly ash-based GP and
discovered that the concrete’s capacity was improved till 22%
[31]. Figure 1. Metakaolin

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 destroyed building in the local area; the RCA’s physical
properties and grading are figured out in Table 3 and Figure 8.

Table 1. Physical properties and chemical composition of

metakaolin

Test Items Result

SiO2 52.10
Al2O3 43.80
Fe2O3 2.60
Ca O 0.20
MgO 0.210
SO3 0.00
Figure 2. XRD spectra of metakaolin K2O 0.320
Na2O 0.110
L.O.I 0.990
PH 6.0-8.0
Surface area (m2/g) 2.540
Specific gravities 2.600

Table 2. Properties of steel fiber

Characteristics Specification
State Copper coated
Density 7860.00 kg/m3
Tensile capacity >2400.00 MPa
Shape Straight
Melt 1500℃
Length 13±1 mm
Dia. 0.2 mm±0.02 mm

Table 3. Physical properties of NCA and RCA

Coarse Specific Absorptions

Size (mm)
Aggregates Gravity S.S.D (%)
NCA 5-19 2.65 1.00
RCA 5-19 2.62 2.18
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of
metakaolin

Figure 5. Grading of fine aggregate

Figure 4. Steel fiber

Natural sand was used as a fine aggregate. The maximum

size of the sand is 4.75 mm, its specific gravity is 2.63, and its
absorption is 1.5%. these properties are all within the limits of
BS.882 [34]. The grading of fine aggregate is shown in Figure
5. Crushed gravel was implemented as a coarse aggregate,
having a maximum size of 19mm, and acquired from the
Euphrates River in the Anbar Province, Iraq. It complies with
[35]. Coarse recycled aggregate and coarse natural aggregate
are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The RCA was acquired from a Figure 6. Coarse recycled aggregate

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 comprised of a superplasticizer, alkaline solution, and extra
water, which is then mixed together for 3 min in order to create
a uniform mixture. After homogenization, newly mixed
concrete was assessed with critical workability tests like slump
flow, T500 flow, V-funnel, and, L-box test, which were applied
in order to describe the SCGC mixture. As soon as the
workability of the freshly mixed SCGC mixture was verified,
it was poured into molds (cylinders, cubes, beams), without
compaction, because the mixtures’ own weight works to fill in
all the voids and pockets. In addition to that, cubes of
100.00×100.00×100.00 mm dimensions were performed to
measure compressive strengths using ASTM C39 [36],
cylinders (Ø 100.00×200.00 mm) had utilized for split tensile
Figure 7. Coarse natural aggregate strength, and 100.00×100.00×400.00 mm beams specimens
utilized for flexural strengths of the SCGC mixtures. After 28
and 90 days of curing, compressive, splitting tensile, and
flexural were measured by testing 3 samples for each mixture.
Samples were tested based on ASTM C496 [37] and ASTM
C78 [38] guidelines for tensile and flexural strengths,
respectively. The next day after casting, the samples were
taken from their moulds and stored in a curing room with an
ambient, controlled temperature until the testing day.

2.3 Testing methods

2.3.1. Fresh properties of SCGC

The fresh states of concrete mixes should fulfill the
Figure 8. Grading of NCA and RCA specifications for filling and passing ability without the
occurrence of bleeding or segregation. Therefore, these
2.2 Mix proportion and Specimens preparation specimens were subject to fresh-state tests immediately after
mixing. The filling capacities (V-Funnel, slump flow) and
Various series of SCGC mixtures were made, with a flowing abilities (L-box) of SCGC are calculated according to
constant overall binder amount of 500 kg/m3, sodium EFNARC [39] as in Figure 9.
hydroxide concentrations of 12M while curing occurs in lab
temperature, 8% superplasticizer, 24% extra-water, and RCA 2.3.2. Hardened properties of SCGC
was used as replacement to NCA at a rate of 0, 10, 20, and 30% Hardened state tests had implemented to assess the
by their weight, and each percentage was mixed with 0%, combination of the effects of RCA and SF on the mechanical
0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% steel fiber. The control concrete mixture properties of the SCGC. Compressive strength tests were done
had natural coarse aggregate and 0% SF incorporated in it. In on cubic samples (100.00×100.00×100.00 mm). Cylindrical
this experimental study, all details for binder, activator, RCA samples (200.00 mm×100.00 mm) were cast to measure the
and SF as shown in Table 4. splitting tensile strength of SCGC with various percentages of
First, all mixtures need the initial combining of dry RCA and SF incorporated in. In a similar fashion, prisms
ingredients such as aggregates and MK in a pan mixer for a (400.00×100.00×100.00 mm) were utilized to analyze the
maximum m 2.5 min, in dry conditions. Then, an adequately flexural strength of the SCGC mixtures, as figured out in
shaken and premixed liquid mixture is added; this mixture is Figure 10.

Table 4. Mix proportions of SCGC (units in kg)

Precursors Activators Aggregate SF

Mix Code
Metakaolin Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Silicate NCA RCA FA
RCA0-SF0 (control) 500 64.34 160.56 787.3 0 926.6 0
RCA0-SF0.5 500 64.34 160.56 787.3 0 926.6 39.3
RCA0-SF1 500 64.34 160.56 787.3 0 926.6 78.5
RCA0-SF1.5 500 64.34 160.56 787.3 0 926.6 117.8
RCA10-SF0 500 64.34 160.56 708.6 78.73 926.6 0
RCA10-SF0.5 500 64.34 160.56 708.6 78.73 926.6 39.3
RCA10-SF1 500 64.34 160.56 708.6 78.73 926.6 78.5
RCA10-SF1.5 500 64.34 160.56 708.6 78.73 926.6 117.8
RCA20-SF0 500 64.34 160.56 629.8 157.5 926.6 0
RCA20-SF0.5 500 64.34 160.56 629.8 157.5 926.6 39.3
RCA20-SF1 500 64.34 160.56 629.8 157.5 926.6 78.5
RCA20-SF1.5 500 64.34 160.56 629.8 157.5 926.6 117.8
RCA30-SF0 500 64.34 160.56 551.1 236.2 926.6 0
RCA30-SF0.5 500 64.34 160.56 551.1 236.2 926.6 39.3
RCA30-SF1 500 64.34 160.56 551.1 236.2 926.6 78.5
RCA30-SF1.5 500 64.34 160.56 551.1 236.2 926.6 117.8

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 (a)
(a)

(b)

(b)

(c) (c)

Figure 9. Workability tests on SCGC mixture: a) Slump Figure 10. Mechanical tests on SCGC mixture: a) Compress
flow; b) V-funnel Test; c) L-Box strength; b) Flex strength; c) Split. strength

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS respectively. The discharging period for the non-fiber
mixtures were 11.12 s, 11.23 s, 11.32 s, and 11.38 s for 0%,
3.1 Fresh properties of SCGC 10%, 20%, and 30% RCA, respectively. The influences of SF
on discharging period were further significant than RCA’s
3.1.1. Slump-flow diameter influences. Furthermore, the longest discharging period had
Figure 11 demonstrates the effect of RCA and SF over the noticed in samples that incorporated 30% RCA and 1.5% SF
diameter of the slump-flows. The largest diameter of slump (combine influence) as figured out in Figure 12.
flows is 731 mm and have been found in the control mixture
(without RCA and SF). The addition of RCA decreased over
the diameter of the slump-flows of the non-SF samples from
731 mm (without RCA) to 691 mm (30% RCA). The RCA
being more porous and coated fully or partially with an old
mortar layer for that shows less flow [17]. The incorporation
of SF reduced the diameter of the slump-flows of the samples
starting from 731 mm (0% SF) to 689 mm (1.5% SF). The
reductions in diameter of the slump-flows resulting from
adding 1.5% SF is larger than the decrease from adding 30%
RCA. Moreover, the combination of SF and RCA reduced the
diameter of the slump-flows significantly. The lowest
diameter of the slump-flows was 653 mm, and it was noticed
in the samples that included the largest percentages of both
RCA (30%) and steel fiber (1.5%).

Figure 12. Test results of SCGC mixture (V-funnel test)

3.1.4 L-box height

In order to find the flowing abilities of the produced SCGC,
the height percentage of L-box was found. The experimental
program proffered the H2/H1 ratio as a method to measure the
crossing abilities through reinforcement bars. Figure 13 shows
the L-box test results of SCGC mixtures. The height
percentage of L-box for a self-compacting concrete to get
crossing abilities must be equal or more than 0.80. For
materials that exhibit completely fluidly attitude, the ratio
must be equal 1. In Figure 13, it was also figured out that all
samples fulfill the EFNARC requirements for the L-box height
ratios. There is an exception, however: the mixture containing
Figure 11. Slump flow and T500 results of SCGC mixture 30% RCA and 1.5% SF does not meet these specifications.
Another thing that can be observed is that this L-box ratio
3.1.2 Slump-flow time (T500) showed an inverse relation with the level of RCA replacements.
The influences of SF and RCA on the time of slump-flow Upon the RCA percentage increased, the height ratio
(T500) is shown in Figure 11, which presents the shared decreased. On the other hand, incorporating SF into the 30%
influences of SF and RCA on the T500 periods. In this test, the RCA mixture allowed for the SCGC to pass the limit ratio (less
time required for the flow diameters of fresh concretes to reach than 0.8).
500 mm is noted. T500 durations for specimens with 0%, 0.5%,
1%, and 1.5% SF, and no RCA, were measured at 4.32 s, 4.44
s, 4.53 s, and 4.62 s, respectively. These results are similar to
those of previous studies adopted by Heweidak et al. [40].
However, for specimens with no SF incorporated, the T 500
durations of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% RCA were 4.32 s, 4.39
s, 4.49 s, and 4.55 s, respectively. For the specimen with the
maximum amount of SF and RCA, the T500 duration rose to
4.86s. In summary, T500 testing outputs had showed satisfying
in accordance with EFNARC specifications.

3.1.3 V-funnel flow time

The V-funnel flow time is an experimental test that reflects
the viscosity and flowability of SCGC. The time of
discharging the SCGC from the V-funnel section showed
similarities in the behavior compared to the slump-flow T500
experimental outputs. For specimens without RCA, the
discharge times were recorded as 11.12 s, 11.34 s, 11.51 s, and
11.65 s for the 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% steel fiber mixes, Figure 13. Test results of SCGC mixture (L-Box)

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3.2 Mechanical properties of SCGC The addition of SF in SCGC partially increased its
compressive-resistance abilities. It may be figured out that the
3.2.1. Compressive strength of SCGC strength increment reached the maximum at 1% SF content for
Compression strength values of 28 and 90-day SCGC all the different SCGC samples. By increasing the SF
specimens are graphically illustrated in Figure 14. It could be percentage to more than 1%, compressive strengths decrement
figured out that compression capacities differed from 26.53 to was noticed parallel to the ratio increment of SF. The reduction
33.95 MPa and from 32.14 to 44.74 MPa at 28 and 90 days, in compressive strength after 1% dosage was due to the non-
respectively. However, it is clearly seen decrement in the uniformity of fiber allocation in concrete mixture caused by
compression strengths at 28 and 90 days and could be unsuitable mixing and low workability, hence these fibers
explained by the poor attitude of aggregates, which matches assemble and accumulate making weak points that act like
up with the incorporations of RCA in GP. For example, in voids which detract concrete total density and accordingly its
comparison to control SCGC specimen, concrete samples of compressive strength. Their and Özakça [41] concluded the
28 days’ age composed of 10%, 20%, and 30% of RCAs same attitude of GP by adding SF. The value of compressive
decreases the compression strengths 0.8%, 3.7%, and 6.1%, strengths of the control sample (excluding RCA and SF) and
respectively, at a free ratio of steel. The lower strength of the samples includes the maximum quantity of RCA (30%)
mixtures containing RCA is not only because of the porous and SF (1.5%) are in proximity to each other’s values. Using
cement mortar in RCA, which makes the aggregates weaker this evidence, it can be figured out that the decreasing impact
comparing with the natural aggregate, but it is also because of of RCA having a diminished role on compressive strengths
the weaker bonding of RCA and geopolymer matrix, which could be recovered by including SF in the mix.
were assessed through SEM images. The SEM micrographs in
the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) of aggregate and 3.2.2. Splitting tensile strength of SCGC
geopolymer paste in control and 30 RCA mixtures are shown
in Figure 15. As observed in this figure, the aggregate–paste
interface of the control mix takes advantage of a dense and
compacted microstructure Figure 15(b). In this context, a gap
is observed in Figure 15(a) at the interface between the RCA
and geopolymer paste, which is formed due to the presence of
the masonry debris partially or fully remaining on the surface
of RCA. This was a major contributor to the lower
compressive strength of the mix [17].

Figure 16. Splitting tensile strength results

Figure 14. Compressive strength results

Figure 17. SEM micrograph of geopolymer concrete

containing SF

The splitting tensile strengths of SCGC samples at 28 and

90 days was measured. Figure 16 also illustrates graphically
these results. To determine the splitting tensile strength,
100.00×200.00 mm cylindrical samples have been used. The
minimum values for the 28- and 90-day measurements were
for SCGC with 30% coarse RCA and with 0% SF, recorded at
2.21 and 2.93 MPa, respectively. Moreover, the maximum
Figure 15. SEM image of geopolymer concrete splitting strengths outputs were measured at as much as 3.64
incorporating: a) recycled coarse aggregate and b) normal and 4.75 MPa at 28 and 90 days, respectively, for SCGC
aggregate containing the natural aggregates, and 1.5% SF. The

203
improvement is because of interaction between the fibers and as the following:
micro- and macro-cracks shown in SEM micrograph (Figure • The test output of fresh SCGC showed that using RCA and
17). When the early cracks approach the fibers, the matrix SF simultaneously had affects negatively the diameter of
interface diverts the path of the cracks; consequently, the slump flow, flow-time (T500), flow-time of V-funnel, and
fibrous concrete withstands additional load, leading to an flowing capacity of L-box. The most significant lowering in
increase in strength. It can be concluded that the fibers could the fresh achievement was seen in the samples that
bridge across the cracks and arrest the crack face separation incorporated the largest percentages of RCA (30%) and SF
during the crack propagation. The fibers sustain the load until (1.5%). Whereas, even with the reduction, SCGC had
pulling out of the matrix. This, as a result, leads to having acceptable passing and flow capacity values, as listed in
higher fracture energy. The proper distributions of SF in the EFNARC specification [37].
matrix causes consumption of additional energy during • All SCGC mixes that were produced were in the range for
breakage or pulling out of the fibers, and this leads to higher slump flow and V-funnel values. They also have adequate
toughness of the composite. However, it is shown that the segregation and bleeding resistance based on EFNARC
SCGC’s splitting tensile strength showed a decrease when specifications.
natural aggregate was replaced with RCA, for all samples. For • Compressive strengths were slightly reduced at age of 28
example, the splitting strengths evaluated at 28 days of RCA0- and 90 days with the addition of RCA into the SCGC mixes;
SF0 was 2.63 MPa, influence it had reached 2.47, 2.36, and meanwhile, additions of SF moderately enhanced the
2.21 MPa for RCA10-SF0, RCA20-SF0 and RCA30-SF0 compressive strengths. Highest compression strengths of
respectively. Likewise, the ninety days’ splitting strengths of 33.45-43.32 (28- and 90-days’ age) were achieved as a
concretes had diminished with the implementation of RCA. result of the integration impact of 1.5% SF and 0% RCA.
The diminution in splitting strengths at age of 28 was within The reduction of compression strengths by RCA can be
the range of 6 to 16%, and other samples cured for ninety days made up for with the incorporation of steel fiber.
were from 7 to 17%. The SCGC attitude agrees with the • The results indicate that SCGC mixtures that incorporated
conclusion that the study [42] reached: that the inclusion of 10, 20, and 30% RCA had little decrement of approximately
RCA lowers the splitting strengths of concretes. 1–5% in the compression strengths values at the comparison
with control sample.
3.2.3. Flexural strength • The compression strengths lowered about 1% by SF
inclusion, because of uneven dispersion of SF, which lead
to a mass accumulation that eventually makes weakened
areas in the concrete. These areas function as voids,
subsequently causing decrement in concrete strengths.
• Adding SF led to a direct proportion in the split tensile value,
while the increased use of RCA led to an inverse proportion
to the tensile value. For example, the highest value was at
(1.5% SF and 0% RCA) with value of 3.64 and 5.46 MPa at
28 and 90 days, respectively.
• The addition of SF improved the flexural strength for SCGC
containing RCA 35% compared to the control mix without
Figure 18. Flexural strength results SF (30RCA-0SF), indicating that SF was able to overcome
the negative effect of RCA on flexural strength.
The impact of the volume concentration of RCA on bending • A decrease occurred in both flexural and splitting tensile
strengths is like the impact of RCA on compressive and strengths when using RCA, but both increased with the
splitting strengths. It is noted that RCA had a negative inclusion of SF.
influence on flexural strengths, which was the conclusion of
the study [43], and as figured out in Figure 18. For plain
mixtures, the decrease in flexural strengths was 6%, 10%, and 5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
16% for RCA replacements of 10%, 20%, and 30%,
respectively, in the formation of the comparative to the control • In general, future work needs to be done to understand the
sample. Utilizing SF in SCGC results in a large improvement Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP) to assess the porosity
in the samples’ bending strengths. The control sample have and the pore size distribution of SCGC based MK made
flexural strengths of 4.01 MPa that increases to 4.90, 5.39, and with RCA, and SF.
• Replace metakaolin with fly ash at a rate not exceeding 15%,
5.46MPa with 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% SF, respectively,
announcing a 36% development in the mixture with 1.5% SF to increase the workability of SCGC mixtures.
incorporated. The highest value, 5.46 MPa, was attained for • It is important to do an economic feasibility study to use
the mix with 0% RCA and 1.5% SF. Other researchers also RCA as a partial replacement of natural aggregate in SCGC
observed a familiar reduction in strength with the inclusion of industry.
RCA in geopolymer concrete [44].

REFERENCES
4. CONCLUSIONS
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